<br><br><div><span class="gmail_quote">On 08/06/07, <b class="gmail_sendername">Lee Corbin</b> <<a href="mailto:lcorbin@rawbw.com">lcorbin@rawbw.com</a>> wrote:<br><br></span><blockquote class="gmail_quote" style="border-left: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0pt 0pt 0pt 0.8ex; padding-left: 1ex;">
Formerly, I had agreed with John because at<br>least for human beings, emotion sometimes<br>plays an important part in what one would<br>think of as purely intellectual functioning. I was<br>working off the Damasio card experiments,
<br>which seem to show that humans require---for<br>full intellectual power---some emotion.</blockquote><div><br>Here is an excerpt from the relevant paper:<br><br><br>###<br><br><span class="fulltext-PUBLISHER">Science</span>
<a name="2"></a>
<a name="3"></a><span class="fulltext-ISSUE">Volume 275(5304), 28 February 1997, pp 1293-1295</span><br><br><div class="fulltext-TITLE">Deciding Advantageously Before Knowing the Advantageous Strategy</div>
<a name="6"></a><div class="fulltext-DOCUTYPE">[Report]</div>
<a name="7"></a><p class="fulltext-AUTHOR">Bechara, Antoine; Damasio, Hanna; Tranel, Daniel; Damasio, Antonio R.</p><p class="fulltext-TEXT fulltext-INDENT">In a gambling task that
simulates real-life decision-making in the way it factors uncertainty,
rewards, and penalties, the players are given four decks of cards, a
loan of $2000 facsimile U.S. bills, and asked to play so that they can
lose the least amount of money and win the most <a class="fulltext-RA" href="file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Administrator/Desktop/Damasio%20Article%20-%20Science.htm#19">[1]</a>.
Turning each card carries an immediate reward ($100 in decks A and B
and $50 in decks C and D). Unpredictably, however, the turning of some
cards also carries a penalty (which is large in decks A and B and small
in decks C and D). Playing mostly from the disadvantageous decks (A and
B) leads to an overall loss. Playing from the advantageous decks (C and
D) leads to an overall gain. The players have no way of predicting when
a penalty will arise in a given deck, no way to calculate with
precision the net gain or loss from each deck, and no knowledge of how
many cards they must turn to end the game (the game is stopped after
100 card selections). After encountering a few losses, normal
participants begin to generate SCRs before selecting a card from the
bad decks <a class="fulltext-RA" href="file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Administrator/Desktop/Damasio%20Article%20-%20Science.htm#20">[2]</a> and also begin to avoid the decks with large losses <a class="fulltext-RA" href="file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Administrator/Desktop/Damasio%20Article%20-%20Science.htm#19">
[1]</a>. Patients with bilateral damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortices do neither <a class="fulltext-RA" href="file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Administrator/Desktop/Damasio%20Article%20-%20Science.htm#19">[1,2]
</a>.</p>
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<p class="fulltext-TEXT fulltext-INDENT">To investigate whether
subjects choose correctly only after or before conceptualizing the
nature of the game and reasoning over the pertinent knowledge, we
continuously assessed, during their performance of the task, three
lines of processing in 10 normal participants and in 6 patients <a class="fulltext-RA" href="file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Administrator/Desktop/Damasio%20Article%20-%20Science.htm#21">[3]</a>
with bilateral damage of the ventromedial sector of the prefrontal
cortex and decision-making defects. These included (i) behavioral
performance, that is, the number of cards selected from the good decks
versus the bad decks; (ii) SCRs generated before the selection of each
card <a class="fulltext-RA" href="file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Administrator/Desktop/Damasio%20Article%20-%20Science.htm#20">[2]</a>; and (iii) the
subject's account of how they conceptualized the game and of the
strategy they were using. The latter was assessed by interrupting the
game briefly after each subject had made 20 card turns and had already
encountered penalties, and asking the subject two questions: (i) "Tell
me all you know about what is going on in this game." (ii) "Tell me how
you feel about this game." The questions were repeated at 10-card
intervals and the responses audiotaped.</p>
<a name="16"></a>
<p class="fulltext-TEXT fulltext-INDENT">After sampling all four decks,
and before encountering any losses, subjects preferred decks A and B
and did not generate significant anticipatory SCRs. We called this
period pre-punishment. After encountering a few losses in decks A or B
(usually by card 10), normal participants began to generate
anticipatory SCRs to decks A and B. Yet by card 20, all indicated that
they did not have a clue about what was going on. We called this period
pre-hunch (<a class="fulltext-GX" href="file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Administrator/Desktop/Damasio%20Article%20-%20Science.htm#FF1">Figure 1</a>). By about
card 50, all normal participants began to express a "hunch" that decks
A and B were riskier and all generated anticipatory SCRs whenever they
pondered a choice from deck A or B. We called this period hunch. None
of the patients generated anticipatory SCRs or expressed a "hunch" (<a class="fulltext-GX" href="file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Administrator/Desktop/Damasio%20Article%20-%20Science.htm#FF1">Figure 1</a>
).
By card 80, many normal participants expressed knowledge about why, in
the long run, decks A and B were bad and decks C and D were good. We
called this period conceptual. Seven of the 10 normal participants
reached the conceptual period, during which they continued to avoid the
bad decks, and continued to generate SCRs whenever they considered
sampling again from the bad decks. Remarkably, the three normal
participants who did not reach the conceptual period still made
advantageous choices <a class="fulltext-RA" href="file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Administrator/Desktop/Damasio%20Article%20-%20Science.htm#22">[4]</a>. Just
as remarkably, the three patients with prefrontal damage who reached
the conceptual period and correctly described which were the bad and
good decks chose disadvantageously. None of the patients generated
anticipatory SCRs (<a class="fulltext-GX" href="file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Administrator/Desktop/Damasio%20Article%20-%20Science.htm#FF1">Figure 1</a>).
Thus, despite an accurate account of the task and of the correct
strategy, these patients failed to generate autonomic responses and
continued to select cards from the bad decks. The patients failed to
act according to their correct conceptual knowledge.</p>###<a name="FF1"></a></div></div><br>Some of these findings have been disputed, eg. the authors of the following paper repeated the experiment and claim that the subjects who decided advantageously actually were consciously aware of the good decks:
<a href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/101/45/16075">http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/101/45/16075</a>. However, it isn't so surprising if we sometimes make good decisions based on emotions, since the evolution of emotions predates intelligence, as John Clark reminds us. And when you pull your hand from a painful stimulus, not only does emotion beat cognition, but reflex, being older still, beats emotion.
<br><br>It also isn't surprising if people with neurological lesions affecting emotion don't function as well as normal people. Emotion is needed for motivation, otherwise why do anything, and gradients of emotion are needed for judgement, otherwise why do one thing over another? It is precisely in matters of judgement and motivation that patients with prefrontal lesions and schizophrenia don't do so well, even though their general IQ may be normal, and the science of neuropsychological testing tries to tease out these deficits.
<br><br>Still, the fact that human brains may work this way does not mean that an AI has to work in the same way to solve similar problems. No programmer would go around writing a program that worked out the best strategy in the above card sorting game by first inventing a computer equivalent of "emotional learning", except perhaps as an academic exercise.
<br><br><br>-- <br>Stathis Papaioannou