[Paleopsych] Vannevar Bush: Science the Endless Frontier

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Vannevar Bush: Science the Endless Frontier
http://www.nsf.gov/about/history/vbush1945.htm

A Report to the President by Vannevar Bush, Director of the Office of
Scientific Research and Development, July 1945

(United States Government Printing Office, Washington: 1945)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

   * Letter of Transmittal
   * President Roosevelt's Letter
   * Summary of the Report 
* 1. Introduction:
  + Scientific Progress is Essential
  + Science is a Proper Concern of Government
  + Government Relations to Science - Past and Future
  + Freedom of Inquiry Must be Preserved 
* 2. The War Against Disease:
  + In War
  + In Peace
  + Unsolved Problems
  + Broad and Basic Studies Needed
  + Coordinated Attack on Special Problems
  + Action is Necessary 
* 3. Science and the Public Welfare:
  + Relation to National Security
  + Science and Jobs
  + The Importance of Basic Research
  + Centers of Basic Research
  + Research Within the Government
  + Industrial Research
  + International Exchange of Scientific Information
  + The Special Need for Federal Support
  + The Cost of a Program 
* 4. Renewal of our Scientific Talent:
  + Nature of the Problem
  + A Note of Warning
  + The Wartime Deficit
  + Improve the Quality
  + Remove the Barriers
  + The Generation in Uniform Must Not be Lost
  + A Program 
* 5. A Problem of Scientific Reconversion:
  + Effects of Mobilization of Science for War
  + Security Restrictions Should be Lifted Promptly
  + Need for Coordination
  + A Board to Control Release
  + Publication Should be Encouraged 
* 6. The Means to the End:
  + New Responsibilities for Government
  + The Mechanism
  + Five Fundamentals
  + Military Research
  + National Research Foundation 
o I. Purposes
o II. Members
o III. Organizations
o IV. Functions
o V. Patent Policy
o VI. Special Authority
o VII. Budget
  + Action by Congress

   * Appendices
  + 1. Committees Consulted
  + 2. Report of the Medical Advisory Committee, Dr. W. W.
Palmer, Chairman
  + 3. Report of the Committee on Science and the Public Welfare,
Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Chairman
  + 4. Report of the Committee on Discovery and Development of
Scientific Talent, Mr. Henry Allen Moe, Chairman
  + 5. Report of the Committee on Publication of Scientific
Information, Dr. Irvin Stewart, Chairman

___

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
1530 P Street, NW.
Washington 25, D.C.
JULY 25, 1945

DEAR MR. PRESIDENT:

In a letter dated November 17, 1944, President Roosevelt requested my
recommendations on the following points:

(1) What can be done, consistent with military security, and with the
prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world
as soon as possible the contributions which have been made during our
war effort to scientific knowledge?

(2) With particular reference to the war of science against disease,
what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the
future the work which has been done in medicine and related sciences?

(3) What can the Government do now and in the future to aid research
activities by public and private organizations?

(4) Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and
developing scientific talent in American youth so that the continuing
future of scientific research in this country may be assured on a
level comparable to what has been done during the war?

It is clear from President Roosevelt's letter that in speaking of
science that he had in mind the natural sciences, including biology
and medicine, and I have so interpreted his questions. Progress in
other fields, such as the social sciences and the humanities, is
likewise important; but the program for science presented in my report
warrants immediate attention.

In seeking answers to President Roosevelt's questions I have had the
assistance of distinguished committees specially qualified to advise
in respect to these subjects. The committees have given these matters
the serious attention they deserve; indeed, they have regarded this as
an opportunity to participate in shaping the policy of the country
with reference to scientific research. They have had many meetings and
have submitted formal reports. I have been in close touch with the
work of the committees and with their members throughout. I have
examined all of the data they assembled and the suggestions they
submitted on the points raised in President Roosevelt's letter.

Although the report which I submit herewith is my own, the facts,
conclusions, and recommendations are based on the findings of the
committees which have studied these questions. Since my report is
necessarily brief, I am including as appendices the full reports of
the committees.

A single mechanism for implementing the recommendations of the several
committees is essential. In proposing such a mechanism I have departed
somewhat from the specific recommendations of the committees, but I
have since been assured that the plan I am proposing is fully
acceptable to the committee members.

The pioneer spirit is still vigorous within this nation. Science
offers a largely unexplored hinterland for the pioneer who has the
tools for his task. The rewards of such exploration both for the
Nation and the individual are great. Scientific progress is one
essential key to our security as a nation, to our better health, to
more jobs, to a higher standard of living, and to our cultural
progress.

Respectfully yours,
(s) V. Bush, Director
THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES,
The White House,
Washington, D. C.

___

PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT'S LETTER

THE WHITE HOUSE
Washington, D. C.
November 17, 1944

DEAR DR. BUSH: The Office of Scientific Research and Development, of
which you are the Director, represents a unique experiment of
team-work and cooperation in coordinating scientific research and in
applying existing scientific knowledge to the solution of the
technical problems paramount in war. Its work has been conducted in
the utmost secrecy and carried on without public recognition of any
kind; but its tangible results can be found in the communiques coming
in from the battlefronts all over the world. Some day the full story
of its achievements can be told.

There is, however, no reason why the lessons to be found in this
experiment cannot be profitably employed in times of peace. The
information, the techniques, and the research experience developed by
the Office of Scientific Research and Development and by the thousands
of scientists in the universities and in private industry, should be
used in the days of peace ahead for the improvement of the national
health, the creation of new enterprises bringing new jobs, and the
betterment of the national standard of living.

It is with that objective in mind that I would like to have your
recommendations on the following four major points:

First: What can be done, consistent with military security, and with
the prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the
world as soon as possible the contributions which have been made
during our war effort to scientific knowledge?

The diffusion of such knowledge should help us stimulate new
enterprises, provide jobs four our returning servicemen and other
workers, and make possible great strides for the improvement of the
national well-being.

Second: With particular reference to the war of science against
disease, what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in
the future the work which has been done in medicine and related
sciences?

The fact that the annual deaths in this country from one or two
diseases alone are far in excess of the total number of lives lost by
us in battle during this war should make us conscious of the duty we
owe future generations.

Third: What can the Government do now and in the future to aid
research activities by public and private organizations? The proper
roles of public and of private research, and their interrelation,
should be carefully considered.

Fourth: Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and
developing scientific talent in American youth so that the continuing
future of scientific research in this country may be assured on a
level comparable to what has been done during the war?

New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are pioneered
with the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged
this war we can create a fuller and more fruitful employment and a
fuller and more fruitful life.

I hope that, after such consultation as you may deem advisable with
your associates and others, you can let me have your considered
judgment on these matters as soon as convenient - reporting on each
when you are ready, rather than waiting for completion of your studies
in all.

Very sincerely yours,
(s) FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT
Dr. VANNEVAR BUSH,
Office of Scientific Research and Development,
Washington, D. C.

__

SCIENCE - THE ENDLESS FRONTIER

"New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are pioneered
with the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged
this war we can create a fuller and more fruitful employment and a
fuller and more fruitful life."--
FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT
November 17, 1944.

___

SUMMARY OF THE REPORT

---

SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IS ESSENTIAL

Progress in the war against disease depends upon a flow of new
scientific knowledge. New products, new industries, and more jobs
require continuous additions to knowledge of the laws of nature, and
the application of that knowledge to practical purposes. Similarly,
our defense against aggression demands new knowledge so that we can
develop new and improved weapons. This essential, new knowledge can be
obtained only through basic scientific research.

Science can be effective in the national welfare only as a member of a
team, whether the conditions be peace or war. But without scientific
progress no amount of achievement in other directions can insure our
health, prosperity, and security as a nation in the modern world.

For the War Against Disease

We have taken great strides in the war against disease. The death rate
for all diseases in the Army, including overseas forces, has been
reduced from 14.1 per thousand in the last war to 0.6 per thousand in
this war. In the last 40 years life expectancy has increased from 49
to 65 years, largely as a consequence of the reduction in the death
rates of infants and children. But we are far from the goal. The
annual deaths from one or two diseases far exceed the total number of
American lives lost in battle during this war. A large fraction of
these deaths in our civilian population cut short the useful lives of
our citizens. Approximately 7,000,000 persons in the United States are
mentally ill and their care costs the public over $175,000,000 a year.
Clearly much illness remains for which adequate means of prevention
and cure are not yet known.

The responsibility for basic research in medicine and the underlying
sciences, so essential to progress in the war against disease, falls
primarily upon the medical schools and universities. Yet we find that
the traditional sources of support for medical research in the medical
schools and universities, largely endowment income, foundation grants,
and private donations, are diminishing and there is no immediate
prospect of a change in this trend. Meanwhile, the cost of medical
research has been rising. If we are to maintain the progress in
medicine which has marked the last 25 years, the Government should
extend financial support to basic medical research in the medical
schools and in universities.

For Our National Security

The bitter and dangerous battle against the U-boat was a battle of
scientific techniques - and our margin of success was dangerously
small. The new eyes which radar has supplied can sometimes be blinded
by new scientific developments. V-2 was countered only by capture of
the launching sites.

We cannot again rely on our allies to hold off the enemy while we
struggle to catch up. There must be more - and more adequate -
military research in peacetime. It is essential that the civilian
scientists continue in peacetime some portion of those contributions
to national security which they have made so effectively during the
war. This can best be done through a civilian-controlled organization
with close liaison with the Army and Navy, but with funds direct from
Congress, and the clear power to initiate military research which will
supplement and strengthen that carried on directly under the control
of the Army and Navy.

And for the Public Welfare

One of our hopes is that after the war there will be full employment.
To reach that goal the full creative and productive energies of the
American people must be released. To create more jobs we must make new
and better and cheaper products. We want plenty of new, vigorous
enterprises. But new products and processes are not born full-grown.
They are founded on new principles and new conceptions which in turn
result from basic scientific research. Basic scientific research is
scientific capital. Moreover, we cannot any longer depend upon Europe
as a major source of this scientific capital. Clearly, more and better
scientific research is one essential to the achievement of our goal of
full employment.

How do we increase this scientific capital? First, we must have plenty
of men and women trained in science, for upon them depends both the
creation of new knowledge and its application to practical purposes.
Second, we must strengthen the centers of basic research which are
principally the colleges, universities, and research institutes. These
institutions provide the environment which is most conducive to the
creation of new scientific knowledge and least under pressure for
immediate, tangible results. With some notable exceptions, most
research in industry and Government involves application of existing
scientific knowledge to practical problems. It is only the colleges,
universities, and a few research institutes that devote most of their
research efforts to expanding the frontiers of knowledge.

Expenditures for scientific research by industry and Government
increased from $140,000,000 in 1930 to $309,000,000 in 1940. Those for
the colleges and universities increased from $20,000,000 to
$31,000,000, while those for the research institutes declined from
$5,200,000 to $4,500,000 during the same period. If the colleges,
universities, and research institutes are to meet the rapidly
increasing demands of industry and Government for new scientific
knowledge, their basic research should be strengthened by use of
public funds.

For science to serve as a powerful factor in our national welfare,
applied research both in Government and in industry must be vigorous.
To improve the quality of scientific research within the Government,
steps should be taken to modify the procedures for recruiting,
classifying, and compensating scientific personnel in order to reduce
the present handicap of governmental scientific bureaus in competing
with industry and the universities for top-grade scientific talent. To
provide coordination of the common scientific activities of these
governmental agencies as to policies and budgets, a permanent Science
Advisory Board should be created to advise the executive and
legislative branches of Government on these matters.

The most important ways in which the Government can promote industrial
research are to increase the flow of new scientific knowledge through
support of basic research, and to aid in the development of scientific
talent. In addition, the Government should provide suitable incentives
to industry to conduct research, (a) by clarification of present
uncertainties in the Internal Revenue Code in regard to the
deductibility of research and development expenditures as current
charges against net income, and (b) by strengthening the patent system
so as to eliminate uncertainties which now bear heavily on small
industries and so as to prevent abuses which reflect discredit upon a
basically sound system. In addition, ways should be found to cause the
benefits of basic research to reach industries which do not now
utilize new scientific knowledge.

WE MUST RENEW OUR SCIENTIFIC TALENT

The responsibility for the creation of new scientific knowledge - and
for most of its application - rests on that small body of men and
women who understand the fundamental laws of nature and are skilled in
the techniques of scientific research. We shall have rapid or slow
advance on any scientific frontier depending on the number of highly
qualified and trained scientists exploring it.

The deficit of science and technology students who, but for the war,
would have received bachelor's degrees is about 150,000. It is
estimated that the deficit of those obtaining advanced degrees in
these fields will amount in 1955 to about 17,000 - for it takes at
least 6 years from college entry to achieve a doctor's degree or its
equivalent in science or engineering. The real ceiling on our
productivity of new scientific knowledge and its application in the
war against disease, and the development of new products and new
industries, is the number of trained scientists available.

The training of a scientist is a long and expensive process. Studies
clearly show that there are talented individuals in every part of the
population, but with few exceptions, those without the means of buying
higher education go without it. If ability, and not the circumstance
of family fortune, determines who shall receive higher education in
science, then we shall be assured of constantly improving quality at
every level of scientific activity. The Government should provide a
reasonable number of undergraduate scholarships and graduate
fellowships in order to develop scientific talent in American youth.
The plans should be designed to attract into science only that
proportion of youthful talent appropriate to the needs of science in
relation to the other needs of the nation for high abilities.

Including Those in Uniform

The most immediate prospect of making up the deficit in scientific
personnel is to develop the scientific talent in the generation now in
uniform. Even if we should start now to train the current crop of
high-school graduates none would complete graduate studies before
1951. The Armed Services should comb their records for men who, prior
to or during the war, have given evidence of talent for science, and
make prompt arrangements, consistent with current discharge plans, for
ordering those who remain in uniform, as soon as militarily possible,
to duty at institutions here and overseas where they can continue
their scientific education. Moreover, the Services should see that
those who study overseas have the benefit of the latest scientific
information resulting from research during the war.

THE LID MUST BE LIFTED

While most of the war research has involved the application of
existing scientific knowledge to the problems of war, rather than
basic research, there has been accumulated a vast amount of
information relating to the application of science to particular
problems. Much of this can be used by industry. It is also needed for
teaching in the colleges and universities here and in the Armed Forces
Institutes overseas. Some of this information must remain secret, but
most of it should be made public as soon as there is ground for belief
that the enemy will not be able to turn it against us in this war. To
select that portion which should be made public, to coordinate its
release, and definitely to encourage its publication, a Board composed
of Army, Navy, and civilian scientific members should be promptly
established.

A PROGRAM FOR ACTION

The Government should accept new responsibilities for promoting the
flow of new scientific knowledge and the development of scientific
talent in our youth. These responsibilities are the proper concern of
the Government, for they vitally affect our health, our jobs, and our
national security. It is in keeping also with basic United States
policy that the Government should foster the opening of new frontiers
and this is the modern way to do it. For many years the Government has
wisely supported research in the agricultural colleges and the
benefits have been great. The time has come when such support should
be extended to other fields.

The effective discharge of these new responsibilities will require the
full attention of some over-all agency devoted to that purpose. There
is not now in the permanent Governmental structure receiving its funds
from Congress an agency adapted to supplementing the support of basic
research in the colleges, universities, and research institutes, both
in medicine and the natural sciences, adapted to supporting research
on new weapons for both Services, or adapted to administering a
program of science scholarships and fellowships.

Therefore I recommend that a new agency for these purposes be
established. Such an agency should be composed of persons of broad
interest and experience, having an understanding of the peculiarities
of scientific research and scientific education. It should have
stability of funds so that long-range programs may be undertaken. It
should recognize that freedom of inquiry must be preserved and should
leave internal control of policy, personnel, and the method and scope
of research to the institutions in which it is carried on. It should
be fully responsible to the President and through him to the Congress
for its program.

Early action on these recommendations is imperative if this nation is
to meet the challenge of science in the crucial years ahead. On the
wisdom with which we bring science to bear in the war against disease,
in the creation of new industries, and in the strengthening of our
Armed Forces depends in large measure our future as a nation.

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Scientific Progress is Essential

We all know how much the new drug, penicillin, has meant to our
grievously wounded men on the grim battlefronts of this war - the
countless lives it has saved - the incalculable suffering which its
use has prevented. Science and the great practical genius of this
nation made this achievement possible.

Some of us know the vital role which radar has played in bringing the
United Nations to victory over Nazi Germany and in driving the
Japanese steadily back from their island bastions. Again it was
painstaking scientific research over many years that made radar
possible.

What we often forget are the millions of pay envelopes on a peacetime
Saturday night which are filled because new products and new
industries have provided jobs for countless Americans. Science made
that possible, too.

In 1939 millions of people were employed in industries which did not
even exist at the close of the last war - radio, air conditioning,
rayon and other synthetic fibers, and plastics are examples of the
products of these industries. But these things do not mark the end of
progress - they are but the beginning if we make full use of our
scientific resources. New manufacturing industries can be started and
many older industries greatly strengthened and expanded if we continue
to study nature's laws and apply new knowledge to practical purposes.

Great advances in agriculture are also based upon scientific research.
Plants which are more resistant to disease and are adapted to short
growing season, the prevention and cure of livestock diseases, the
control of our insect enemies, better fertilizers, and improved
agricultural practices, all stem from painstaking scientific research.

Advances in science when put to practical use mean more jobs, higher
wages, shorter hours, more abundant crops, more leisure for
recreation, for study, for learning how to live without the deadening
drudgery which has been the burden of the common man for ages past.
Advances in science will also bring higher standards of living, will
lead to the prevention or cure of diseases, will promote conservation
of our limited national resources, and will assure means of defense
against aggression. But to achieve these objectives - to secure a high
level of employment, to maintain a position of world leadership - the
flow of new scientific knowledge must be both continuous and
substantial.

Our population increased from 75 million to 130 million between 1900
and 1940. In some countries comparable increases have been accompanied
by famine. In this country the increase has been accompanied by more
abundant food supply, better living, more leisure, longer life, and
better health. This is, largely, the product of three factors - the
free play of initiative of a vigorous people under democracy, the
heritage of great national wealth, and the advance of science and its
application.

Science, by itself, provides no panacea for individual, social, and
economic ills. It can be effective in the national welfare only as a
member of a team, whether the conditions be peace or war. But without
scientific progress no amount of achievement in other directions can
insure our health, prosperity, and security as a nation in the modern
world.

Science Is a Proper Concern of Government

It has been basic United States policy that Government should foster
the opening of new frontiers. It opened the seas to clipper ships and
furnished land for pioneers. Although these frontiers have more or
less disappeared, the frontier of science remains. It is in keeping
with the American tradition - one which has made the United States
great - that new frontiers shall be made accessible for development by
all American citizens.

Moreover, since health, well-being, and security are proper concerns
of Government, scientific progress is, and must be, of vital interest
to Government. Without scientific progress the national health would
deteriorate; without scientific progress we could not hope for
improvement in our standard of living or for an increased number of
jobs for our citizens; and without scientific progress we could not
have maintained our liberties against tyranny.

Government Relations to Science - Past and Future

>From early days the Government has taken an active interest in
scientific matters. During the nineteenth century the Coast and
Geodetic Survey, the Naval Observatory, the Department of Agriculture,
and the Geological Survey were established. Through the Land Grant
College acts the Government has supported research in state
institutions for more than 80 years on a gradually increasing scale.
Since 1900 a large number of scientific agencies have been established
within the Federal Government, until in 1939 they numbered more than
40.

Much of the scientific research done by Government agencies is
intermediate in character between the two types of work commonly
referred to as basic and applied research. Almost all Government
scientific work has ultimate practical objectives but, in many fields
of broad national concern, it commonly involves long-term
investigation of a fundamental nature. Generally speaking, the
scientific agencies of Government are not so concerned with immediate
practical objectives as are the laboratories of industry nor, on the
other hand, are they as free to explore any natural phenomena without
regard to possible economic applications as are the educational and
private research institutions. Government scientific agencies have
splendid records of achievement, but they are limited in function.

We have no national policy for science. The Government has only begun
to utilize science in the nation's welfare. There is no body within
the Government charged with formulating or executing a national
science policy. There are no standing committees of the Congress
devoted to this important subject. Science has been in the wings. It
should be brought to the center of the stage - for in it lies much of
our hope for the future.

There are areas of science in which the public interest is acute but
which are likely to be cultivated inadequately if left without more
support than will come from private sources. These areas - such as
research on military problems, agriculture, housing, public health,
certain medical research, and research involving expensive capital
facilities beyond the capacity of private institutions - should be
advanced by active Government support. To date, with the exception of
the intensive war research conducted by the Office of Scientific
Research and Development, such support has been meager and
intermittent.

For reasons presented in this report we are entering a period when
science needs and deserves increased support from public funds.

Freedom of Inquiry Must Be Preserved

The publicly and privately supported colleges, universities, and
research institutes are the centers of basic research. They are the
wellsprings of knowledge and understanding. As long as they are
vigorous and healthy and their scientists are free to pursue the truth
wherever it may lead, there will be a flow of new scientific knowledge
to those who can apply it to practical problems in Government, in
industry, or elsewhere.

Many of the lessons learned in the war-time application of science
under Government can be profitably applied in peace. The Government is
peculiarly fitted to perform certain functions, such as the
coordination and support of broad programs on problems of great
national importance. But we must proceed with caution in carrying over
the methods which work in wartime to the very different conditions of
peace. We must remove the rigid controls which we have had to impose,
and recover freedom of inquiry and that healthy competitive scientific
spirit so necessary for expansion of the frontiers of scientific
knowledge.

Scientific progress on a broad front results from the free play of
free intellects, working on subjects of their own choice, in the
manner dictated by their curiosity for exploration of the unknown.
Freedom of inquiry must be preserved under any plan for Government
support of science in accordance with the Five Fundamentals listed on
page 26 .

The study of the momentous questions presented in President
Roosevelt's letter has been made by able committees working
diligently. This report presents conclusions and recommendations based
upon the studies of these committees which appear in full as the
appendices. Only in the creation of one over-all mechanism rather than
several does this report depart from the specific recommendations of
the committees. The members of the committees have reviewed the
recommendations in regard to the single mechanism and have found this
plan thoroughly acceptable.

Chapter 2 THE WAR AGAINST DISEASE

In War

The death rate for all diseases in the Army, including the overseas
forces, has been reduced from 14.1 per thousand in the last war to 0.6
per thousand in this war.

Such ravaging diseases as yellow fever, dysentery, typhus, tetanus,
pneumonia, and meningitis have been all but conquered by penicillin
and the sulfa drugs, the insecticide DDT, better vaccines, and
improved hygenic measures. Malaria has been controlled. There has been
dramatic progress in surgery.

The striking advances in medicine during the war have been possible
only because we had a large backlog of scientific data accumulated
through basic research in many scientific fields in the years before
the war.

In Peace

In the last 40 years life expectancy in the United States has
increased from 49 to 65 years largely as a consequence of the
reduction in the death rates of infants and children; in the last 20
years the death rate from the diseases of childhood has been reduced
87 percent.

Diabetes has been brought under control by insulin, pernicious anemia
by liver extracts; and the once widespread deficiency diseases have
been much reduced, even in the lowest income groups, by accessory food
factors and improvement of diet. Notable advances have been made in
the early diagnosis of cancer, and in the surgical and radiation
treatment of the disease.

These results have been achieved through a great amount of basic
research in medicine and the preclinical sciences, and by the
dissemination of this new scientific knowledge through the physicians
and medical services and public health agencies of the country. In
this cooperative endeavour the pharmaceutical industry has played an
important role, especially during the war. All of the medical and
public health groups share credit for these achievements; they form
interdependent members of a team.

Progress in combating disease depends upon an expanding body of new
scientific knowledge.

Unsolved Problems

As President Roosevelt observed, the annual deaths from one or two
diseases are far in excess of the total number of American lives lost
in battle during this war. A large fraction of these deaths in our
civilian population cut short the useful lives of our citizens. This
is our present position despite the fact that in the last three
decades notable progress has been made in civilian medicine. The
reduction in death rate from diseases of childhood has shifted the
emphasis to the middle and old age groups, particularly to the
malignant diseases and the degenerative processes prominent in later
life. Cardiovascular disease, including chronic disease of the
kidneys, arteriosclerosis, and cerebral hemorrhage, now account for 45
percent of the deaths in the United States. Second are the infectious
diseases, and third is cancer. Added to these are many maladies (for
example, the common cold, arthritis, asthma and hay fever, peptic
ulcer) which, through infrequently fatal, cause incalculable
disability.

Another aspect of the changing emphasis is the increase of mental
diseases. Approximately 7 million persons in the United States are
mentally ill; more than one-third of the hospital beds are occupied by
such persons, at a cost of $175 million a year. Each year 125,000 new
mental cases are hospitalized.

Notwithstanding great progress in prolonging the span of life and
relief of suffering, much illness remains for which adequate means of
prevention and cure are not yet known. While additional physicians,
hospitals, and health programs are needed, their full usefulness
cannot be attained unless we enlarge our knowledge of the human
organism and the nature of disease. Any extension of medical
facilities must be accompanied by an expanded program of medical
training and research.

Broad and Basic Studies Needed

Discoveries pertinent to medical progress have often come from remote
and unexpected sources, and it is certain that this will be true in
the future. It is wholly probable that progress in the treatment of
cardiovascular disease, renal disease, cancer, and similar refractory
diseases will be made as the result of fundamental discoveries in
subjects unrelated to those diseases, and perhaps entirely unexpected
by the investigator. Further progress requires that the entire front
of medicine and the underlying sciences of chemistry, physics,
anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, bacteriology,
pathology, parasitology, etc., be broadly developed.

Progress in the war against disease results from discoveries in remote
and unexpected fields of medicine and the underlying sciences.

Coordinated Attack on Special Problems

Penicillin reached our troops in time to save countless lives because
the Government coordinated and supported the program of research and
development on the drug. The development moved from the early
laboratory stage to large scale production and use in a fraction of
the time it would have taken without such leadership. The search for
better anti-malarials, which proceeded at a moderate tempo for many
years, has been accelerated enormously by Government support during
the war. Other examples can be cited in which medical progress has
been similarly advanced. In achieving these results, the Government
has provided over-all coordination and support; it has not dictated
how the work should be done within any cooperating institution.

Discovery of new therapeutic agents and methods usually results from
basic studies in medicine and the underlying sciences. The development
of such materials and methods to the point at which they become
available to medical practitioners requires teamwork involving the
medical schools, the science departments of universities, Government
and the pharmaceutical industry. Government initiative, support, and
coordination can be very effective in this development phase.

Government initiative and support for the development of newly
discovered therapeutic materials and methods can reduce the time
required to bring the benefits to the public.

Action is Necessary

The primary place for medical research is in the medical schools and
universities. In some cases coordinated direct attack on special
problems may be made by teams of investigators, supplementing similar
attacks carried on by the Army, Navy, Public Health Service, and other
organizations. Apart from teaching, however, the primary obligation of
the medical schools and universities is to continue the traditional
function of such institutions, namely, to provide the individual
worker with an opportunity for free, untrammeled study of nature, in
the directions and by the methods suggested by his interests,
curiosity, and imagination. The history of medical science teaches
clearly the supreme importance of affording the prepared mind complete
freedom for the exercise of initiative. It is the special province of
the medical schools and universities to foster medical research in
this way - a duty which cannot be shifted to government agencies,
industrial organizations, or to any other institutions.

Where clinical investigations of the human body are required, the
medical schools are in a unique position, because of their close
relationship to teaching hospitals, to integrate such investigations
with the work of the departments of preclinical science, and to impart
new knowledge to physicians in training. At the same time, the
teaching hospitals are especially well qualified to carry on medical
research because of their close connection with the medical schools,
on which they depend for staff and supervision.

Between World War I and World War II the United States overtook all
other nations in medical research and assumed a position of world
leadership. To a considerable extent this progress reflected the
liberal financial support from university endowment income, gifts from
individuals, and foundation grants in the 20's. The growth of research
departments in medical schools ahs been very uneven, however, and in
consequence most of the important work has been done in a few large
schools. This should be corrected by building up the weaker
institutions, especially in regions which now have no strong medical
research activities.

The traditional sources of support for medical research, largely
endowment income, foundation grants, and private donations, are
diminishing, and there is no immediate prospect of a change in this
trend. Meanwhile, research costs have steadily risen. More elaborate
and expensive equipment is required, supplies are more costly, and the
wages of assistants are higher. Industry is only to a limited extent a
source of funds for basic medical research.

It is clear that if we are to maintain the progress in medicine which
has marked the last 25 years, the Government should extend financial
support to basic medical research in the medical schools and in the
universities, through grants both for research and for fellowships.
The amount which can be effectively spent in the first year should not
exceed 5 million dollars. After a program is under way perhaps 20
million dollars a year can be spent effectively.

Chapter 3 SCIENCE AND THE PUBLIC WELFARE

Relation to National Security

In this war it has become clear beyond all doubt that scientific
research is absolutely essential to national security. The bitter and
dangerous battle against the U-boat was a battle of scientific
techniques - and our margin of success was dangerously small. The new
eyes which radar supplied to our fighting forces quickly evoked the
development of scientific countermeasures which could often blind
them. This again represents the ever continuing battle of techniques.
The V-1 attack on London was finally defeated by three devices
developed during this war and used superbly in the field. V-2 was
countered only by the capture of the launching sites.

The Secretaries of War and Navy recently stated in a joint letter to
the National Academy of Sciences:

This war emphasizes three facts of supreme importance to national
security: (1) Powerful new tactics of defense and offense are
developed around new weapons created by scientific and engineering
research; (2) the competitive time element in developing those weapons
and tactics may be decisive; (3) war is increasingly total war, in
which the armed services must be supplemented by active participation
of every element of civilian population.

To insure continued preparedness along farsighted technical lines, the
research scientists of the country must be called upon to continue in
peacetime some substantial portion of those types of contribution to
national security which they have made so effectively during the
stress of the present war * * *.

There must be more - and more adequate - military research during
peacetime. We cannot again rely on our allies to hold off the enemy
while we struggle to catch up. Further, it is clear that only the
Government can undertake military research; for it must be carried on
in secret, much of it has no commercial value, and it is expensive.
The obligation of Government to support research on military problems
is inescapable.

Modern war requires the use of the most advanced scientific
techniques. Many of the leaders in the development of radar are
scientists who before the war had been exploring the nucleus of the
atom. While there must be increased emphasis on science in the future
training of officers for both the Army and Navy, such men cannot be
expected to be specialists in scientific research. Therefore a
professional partnership between the officers in the Services and
civilian scientists is needed.

The Army and Navy should continue to carry on research and development
on the improvement of current weapons. For many years the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics has supplemented the work of the
Army and Navy by conducting basic research on the problems of flight.
There should now be permanent civilian activity to supplement the
research work of the Services in other scientific fields so as to
carry on in time of peace some part of the activities of the emergency
war-time Office of Scientific Research and Development.

Military preparedness requires a permanent independent,
civilian-controlled organization, having close liaison with the Army
and Navy, but with funds directly from Congress and with the clear
power to initiate military research which will supplement and
strengthen that carried on directly under the control of the Army and
Navy.

Military preparedness requires a permanent independent,
civilian-controlled organization, having close liaison with the Army
and Navy, but with funds directly from Congress and with the clear
power to initiate military research which will supplement and
strengthen that carried on directly under the control of the Army and
Navy.

Science and Jobs

One of our hopes is that after the war there will be full employment,
and that the production of goods and services will serve to raise our
standard of living. We do not know yet how we shall reach that goal,
but it is certain that it can be achieved only by releasing the full
creative and productive energies of the American people.

Surely we will not get there by standing still, merely by making the
same things we made before and selling them at the same or higher
prices. We will not get ahead in international trade unless we offer
new and more attractive and cheaper products.

Where will these new products come from? How will we find ways to make
better products at lower cost? The answer is clear. There must be a
stream of new scientific knowledge to turn the wheels of private and
public enterprise. There must be plenty of men and women trained in
science and technology for upon them depend both the creation of new
knowledge and its application to practical purposes.

More and better scientific research is essential to the achievement of
our goal of full employment.

The Importance of Basic Research

Basic research is performed without thought of practical ends. It
results in general knowledge and an understanding of nature and its
laws. This general knowledge provides the means of answering a large
number of important practical problems, though it may not give a
complete specific answer to any one of them. The function of applied
research is to provide such complete answers. The scientist doing
basic research may not be at all interested in the practical
applications of his work, yet the further progress of industrial
development would eventually stagnate if basic scientific research
were long neglected.

One of the peculiarities of basic science is the variety of paths
which lead to productive advance. Many of the most important
discoveries have come as a result of experiments undertaken with very
different purposes in mind. Statistically it is certain that important
and highly useful discoveries will result from some fraction of the
undertakings in basic science; but the results of any one particular
investigation cannot be predicted with accuracy.

Basic research leads to new knowledge. It provides scientific capital.
It creates the fund from which the practical applications of knowledge
must be drawn. New products and new processes do not appear
full-grown. They are founded on new principles and new conceptions,
which in turn are painstakingly developed by research in the purest
realms of science.

Today, it is truer than ever that basic research is the pacemaker of
technological progress. In the nineteenth century, Yankee mechanical
ingenuity, building largely upon the basic discoveries of European
scientists, could greatly advance the technical arts. Now the
situation is different.

A nation which depends upon others for its new basic scientific
knowledge will be slow in its industrial progress and weak in its
competitive position in world trade, regardless of its mechanical
skill.

Centers of Basic Research

Publicly and privately supported colleges and universities and the
endowed research institutes must furnish both the new scientific
knowledge and the trained research workers. These institutions are
uniquely qualified by tradition and by their special characteristics
to carry on basic research. They are charged with the responsibility
of conserving the knowledge accumulated by the past, imparting that
knowledge to students, and contributing new knowledge of all kinds. It
is chiefly in these institutions that scientists may work in an
atmosphere which is relatively free from the adverse pressure of
convention, prejudice, or commercial necessity. At their best they
provide the scientific worker with a strong sense of solidarity and
security, as well as a substantial degree of personal intellectual
freedom. All of these factors are of great importance in the
development of new knowledge, since much of new knowledge is certain
to arouse opposition because of its tendency to challenge current
beliefs or practice.

Industry is generally inhibited by preconceived goals, by its own
clearly defined standards, and by the constant pressure of commercial
necessity. Satisfactory progress in basic science seldom occurs under
conditions prevailing in the normal industrial laboratory. There are
some notable exceptions, it is true, but even in such cases it is
rarely possible to match the universities in respect to the freedom
which is so important to scientific discovery.

To serve effectively as the centers of basic research these
institutions must be strong and healthy. They must attract our best
scientists as teachers and investigators. They must offer research
opportunities and sufficient compensation to enable them to compete
with industry and government for the cream of scientific talent.

During the past 25 years there has been a great increase in industrial
research involving the application of scientific knowledge to a
multitude of practical purposes - thus providing new products, new
industries, new investment opportunities, and millions of jobs. During
the same period research within Government - again largely applied
research - has also been greatly expanded. In the decade from 1930 to
1940 expenditures for industrial research increased from $116,000,000
to $240,000,000 and those for scientific research in Government rose
from $24,000,000 to $69,000,000. During the same period expenditures
for scientific research in the colleges and universities increased
from $20,000,000 to $31,000,000, while those in the endowed research
institutes declined from $5,200,000 to $4,500,000. These are the best
estimates available. The figures have been taken from a variety of
sources and arbitrary definitions have necessarily been applied, but
it is believed that they may be accepted as indicating the following
trends:

   * (a) Expenditures for scientific research by industry and
  Government - almost entirely applied research - have more than
  doubled between 1930 and 1940. Whereas in 1930 they were six times
  as large as the research expenditures of the colleges,
  universities, and research institutes, by 1940 they were nearly
  ten times as large.
   * (b) While expenditures for scientific research in the colleges and
  universities increased by one-half during this period, those for
  the endowed research institutes have slowly declined.

If the colleges, universities, and research institutes are to meet the
rapidly increasing demands of industry and Government for new
scientific knowledge, their basic research should be strengthened by
use of public funds.

Research Within the Government

Although there are some notable exceptions, most research conducted
within governmental laboratories is of an applied nature. This has
always been true and is likely to remain so. Hence Government, like
industry, is dependent on the colleges, universities, and research
institutes to expand the basic scientific frontiers and to furnish
trained scientific investigators.

Research within the Government represents an important part of our
total research activity and needs to be strengthened and expanded
after the war. Such expansion should be directed to fields of inquiry
and service which are of public importance and are not adequately
carried on by private organizations.

The most important single factor in scientific and technical work is
the quality of the personnel employed. The procedures currently
followed within the Government for recruiting, classifying and
compensating such personnel place the Government under a severe
handicap in competing with industry and the universities for
first-class scientific talent. Steps should be taken to reduce that
handicap.

In the Government the arrangement whereby the numerous scientific
agencies form parts of larger departments has both advantages and
disadvantages. but the present pattern is firmly established and there
is much to be said for it. There is, however, a very real need for
some measure of coordination of the common scientific activities of
these agencies, both as to policies and budgets, and at present no
such means exist.

A permanent Science Advisory Board should be created to consult with
these scientific bureaus and to advise the executive and legislative
branches of Government as to the policies and budgets of Government
agencies engaged in scientific research.

This board should be composed of disinterested scientists who have no
connection with the affairs of any Government agency.

Industrial Research

The simplest and most effective way in which the Government can
strengthen industrial research is to support basic research and to
develop scientific talent.

The benefits of basic research do not reach all industries equally or
at the same speed. Some small enterprises never receive any of the
benefits. It has been suggested that the benefits might be better
utilized if "research clinics" for such enterprises were to be
established. Businessmen would thus be able to make more use of
research than they now do. This proposal is certainly worthy of
further study.

One of the most important factors affecting the amount of industrial
research is the income-tax law. Government action in respect to this
subject will affect the rate of technical progress in industry.
Uncertainties as to the attitude of the Bureau of Internal Revenue
regarding the deduction of research and development expenses are a
deterrent to research expenditure. These uncertainties arise from lack
of clarity of the tax law as to the proper treatment of such costs.

The Internal Revenue Code should be amended to remove present
uncertainties in regard to the deductibility of research and
development expenditures as current charges against net income.

Research is also affected by the patent laws. They stimulate new
invention and they make it possible for new industries to be built
around new devices or new processes. These industries generate new
jobs and new products, all of which contribute to the welfare and the
strength of the country.

Yet, uncertainties in the operation of the patent laws have impaired
the ability of small industries to translate new ideas into processes
and products of value to the nation. These uncertainties are, in part,
attributable to the difficulties and expense incident to the operation
of the patent system as it presently exists. These uncertainties are
also attributable to the existence of certain abuses, which have
appeared in the use of patents. The abuses should be corrected. They
have led to extravagantly critical attacks which tend to discredit a
basically sound system.

It is important that the patent system continue to serve the country
in the manner intended by the Constitution, for it has been a vital
element in the industrial vigor which has distinguished this nation.

The National Patent Planning Commission has reported on this subject.
In addition, a detailed study, with recommendations concerning the
extent to which modifications should be made in our patent laws is
currently being made under the leadership of the Secretary of
Commerce. It is recommended, therefore, that specific action with
regard to the patent laws be withheld pending the submission of the
report devoted exclusively to that subject.

International Exchange of Scientific Information

International exchange of scientific information is of growing
importance. Increasing specialization of science will make it more
important than ever that scientists in this country keep continually
ahead of developments abroad. In addition a flow of scientific
information constitutes one facet of general international accord
which should be cultivated.

The Government can accomplish significant results in several ways: by
aiding in the arrangement of international science congresses, in the
official accrediting of American scientists to such gatherings, in the
official reception of foreign scientists of standing in this country,
in making possible a rapid flow of technical information, including
translation service, and possibly in the provision of international
fellowships. Private foundations and other groups partially fulfill
some of these functions at present, but their scope is incomplete and
inadequate.

The Government should take an active role in promoting the
international flow of scientific information.

The Special Need for Federal Support

We can no longer count on ravaged Europe as a source of fundamental
knowledge. In the past we have devoted much of our best efforts to the
application of such knowledge which has been discovered abroad. In the
future we must pay increased attention to discovering this knowledge
for ourselves particularly since the scientific applications of the
future will be more than ever dependent upon such basic knowledge.

New impetus must be given to research in our country. Such impetus can
come promptly only from the Government. Expenditures for research in
the colleges, universities, and research institutes will otherwise not
be able to meet the additional demands of increased public need for
research.

Further, we cannot expect industry adequately to fill the gap.
Industry will fully rise to the challenge of applying new knowledge to
new products. The commercial incentive can be relied upon for that.
But basic research is essentially noncommercial in nature. It will not
receive the attention it requires if left to industry.

For many years the Government has wisely supported research in the
agricultural colleges and the benefits have been great. The time has
come when such support should be extended to other fields.

In providing government support, however, we must endeavor to preserve
as far as possible the private support of research both in industry
and in the colleges, universities, and research institutes. These
private sources should continue to carry their share of the financial
burden.

The Cost of a Program

It is estimated that an adequate program for Federal support of basic
research in the colleges, universities, and research institutes and
for financing important applied research in the public interest, will
cost about 10 million dollars at the outset and may rise to about 50
million dollars annually when fully underway at the end of perhaps 5
years.

Chapter 4 RENEWAL OF OUR SCIENTIFIC TALENT

Nature of the Problem

The responsibility for the creation of new scientific knowledge rests
on that small body of men and women who understand the fundamental
laws of nature and are skilled in the techniques of scientific
research. While there will always be the rare individual who will rise
to the top without benefit of formal education and training, he is the
exception and even he might make a more notable contribution if he had
the benefit of the best education we have to offer. I cannot improve
on President Conant's statement that:

"* * * in every section of the entire area where the word science may
properly be applied, the limiting factor is a human one. We shall have
rapid or slow advance in this direction or in that depending on the
number of really first-class men who are engaged in the work in
question. * * * So in the last analysis, the future of science in this
country will be determined by our basic educational policy."

A Note of Warning

It would be folly to set up a program under which research in the
natural sciences and medicine was expanded at the cost of the social
sciences, humanities, and other studies so essential to national
well-being. This point has been well stated by the Moe Committee as
follows:

" As citizens, as good citizens, we therefore think that we must have
in mind while examining the question before us - the discovery and
development of scientific talent - the needs of the whole national
welfare. We could not suggest to you a program which would syphon into
science and technology a disproportionately large share of the
nation's highest abilities, without doing harm to the nation, nor,
indeed, without crippling science. * * * Science cannot live by and
unto itself alone."
  *  * *  * *  * *  * *  * *  * *  *

"The uses to which high ability in youth can be put are various and,
to a large extent, are determined by social pressures and rewards.
When aided by selective devices for picking out scientifically
talented youth, it is clear that large sums of money for scholarships
and fellowships and monetary and other rewards in disproportionate
amounts might draw into science too large a percentage of the nation's
high ability, with a result highly detrimental to the nation and to
science. Plans for the discovery and development of scientific talent
must be related to the other needs of society for high ability. * * *
There is never enough ability at high levels to satisfy all the needs
of the nation; we would not seek to draw into science any more of it
than science's proportionate share."

The Wartime Deficit

Among the young men and women qualified to take up scientific work,
since 1940 there have been few students over 18, except some in
medicine and engineering in Army and Navy programs and a few 4-F's,
who have followed an integrated scientific course of studies. Neither
our allies nor, so far as we know, our enemies have done anything so
radical as thus to suspend almost completely their educational
activities in scientific pursuits during the war period.

Two great principles have guided us in this country as we have turned
our full efforts to war. First, the sound democratic principle that
there should be no favored classes or special privilege in a time of
peril, that all should be ready to sacrifice equally; second, the
tenet that every man should serve in the capacity in which his talents
and experience can best be applied for the prosecution of the war
effort. In general we have held these principles well in balance.

In my opinion, however, we have drawn too heavily for nonscientific
purposes upon the great natural resource which resides in our trained
young scientists and engineers. For the general good of the country
too many such men have gone into uniform, and their talents have not
always been fully utilized. With the exception of those men engaged in
war research, all physically fit students at graduate level have been
taken into the armed forces. Those ready for college training in the
sciences have not been permitted to enter upon that training.

There is thus an accumulating deficit of trained research personnel
which will continue for many years. The deficit of science and
technology students who, but for the war, would have received
bachelor's degrees is about 150,000. The deficit of those holding
advanced degrees - that is, young scholars trained to the point where
they are capable of carrying on original work - has been estimated as
amounting to about 17,000 by 1955 in chemistry, engineering, geology,
mathematics, physics, psychology, and the biological sciences.

With mounting demands for scientists both for teaching and for
research, we will enter the post-war period with a serious deficit in
our trained scientific personnel.

Improve the Quality

Confronted with these deficits, we are compelled to look to the use of
our basic human resources and formulate a program which will assure
their conservation and effective development. The committee advising
me on scientific personnel has stated the following principle which
should guide our planning:

"If we were all-knowing and all-wise we might, but we think probably
not, write you a plan whereby there might be selected for training,
which they otherwise would not get, those who, 20 years hence, would
be scientific leaders, and we might not bother about any lesser
manifestations of scientific ability. But in the present state of
knowledge a plan cannot be made which will select, and assist, only
those young men and women who will give the top future leadership to
science. To get top leadership there must be a relatively large base
of high ability selected for development and then successive skimmings
of the cream of ability at successive times and at higher levels. No
one can select from the bottom those who will be the leaders at the
top because unmeasured and unknown factors enter into scientific, or
any, leadership. There are brains and character, strength and health,
happiness and spiritual vitality, interest and motivation, and no one
knows what else, that must needs enter into this supra-mathematical
calculus.

"We think we probably would not, even if we were all-wise and
all-knowing, write you a plan whereby you would be assured of
scientific leadership at one stroke. We think as we think because we
are not interested in setting up an elect. We think it much the best
plan, in this constitutional Republic, that opportunity be held out to
all kinds and conditions of men whereby they can better themselves.
This is the American way; this is the way the United States has become
what it is. We think it very important that circumstances be such that
there be no ceilings, other than ability itself, to intellectual
ambition. We think it very important that every boy and girl shall
know that, if he shows that he has what it takes, the sky is the
limit. Even if it be shown subsequently that he has not what it takes
to go to the top, he will go further than he would otherwise go if
there had been a ceiling beyond which he always knew he could not
aspire.

"By proceeding from point to point and taking stock on the way, by
giving further opportunity to those who show themselves worthy of
further opportunity, by giving the most opportunity to those who show
themselves continually developing - this is the way we propose. This
is the American way: a man work for what he gets."

Remove the Barriers

Higher education in this country is largely for those who have the
means. If those who have the means coincided entirely with those
persons who have the talent we should not be squandering a part of our
higher education on those undeserving of it, nor neglecting great
talent among those who fail to attend college for economic reasons.
There are talented individuals in every segment of the population, but
with few exceptions those without the means of buying higher education
go without it. Here is a tremendous waste of the greatest resource of
a nation - the intelligence of its citizens.

If ability, and not the circumstance of family fortune, is made to
determine who shall receive higher education in science, then we shall
be assured of constantly improving quality at every level of
scientific activity.

The Generation in Uniform Must Not Be Lost

We have a serious deficit in scientific personnel partly because the
men who would have studied science in the colleges and universities
have been serving in the Armed Forces. Many had begun their studies
before they went to war. Others with capacity for scientific education
went to war after finishing high school. The most immediate prospect
of making up some of the deficit in scientific personnel is by
salvaging scientific talent from the generation in uniform. For even
if we should start now to train the current crop of high school
graduates, it would be 1951 before they would complete graduate
studies and be prepared for effective scientific research. This fact
underlines the necessity of salvaging potential scientists in uniform.

The Armed Services should comb their records for men who, prior to or
during the war, have given evidence of talent for science, and make
prompt arrangements, consistent with current discharge plans, for
ordering those who remain in uniform as soon as militarily possible to
duty at institutions here and overseas where they can continue their
scientific education. Moreover, they should see that those who study
overseas have the benefit of the latest scientific developments.

A Program

The country may be proud of the fact that 95 percent of boys and girls
of the fifth grade age are enrolled in school, but the drop in
enrollment after the fifth grade is less satisfying. For every 1,000
students in the fifth grade, 600 are lost to education before the end
of high school, and all but 72 have ceased formal education before
completion of college. While we are concerned primarily with methods
of selecting and educating high school graduates at the college and
higher levels, we cannot be complacent about the loss of potential
talent which is inherent in the present situation.

Students drop out of school, college, and graduate school, or do not
get that far, for a variety of reasons: they cannot afford to go on;
schools and colleges providing courses equal to their capacity are not
available locally; business and industry recruit many of the most
promising before they have finished the training of which they are
capable. These reasons apply with particular force to science: the
road is long and expensive; it extends at least 6 years beyond high
school; the percentage of science students who can obtain first-rate
training in institutions near home is small.

Improvement in the teaching of science is imperative; for students of
latent scientific ability are particularly vulnerable to high school
teaching which fails to awaken interest or to provide adequate
instruction. To enlarge the group of specially qualified men and women
it is necessary to increase the number who go to college. This
involves improved high school instruction, provision for helping
individual talented students to finish high school (primarily the
responsibility of the local communities), and opportunities for more
capable, promising high school students to go to college. Anything
short of this means serious waste of higher education and neglect of
human resources.

To encourage and enable a larger number of young men and women of
ability to take up science as a career, and in order gradually to
reduce the deficit of trained scientific personnel, it is recommended
that provision be made for a reasonable number of (a) undergraduate
scholarships and graduate fellowships and (b) fellowships for advanced
training and fundamental research. The details should be worked out
with reference to the interests of the several States and of the
universities and colleges; and care should be taken not to impair the
freedom of the institutions and individuals concerned.

The program proposed by the Moe Committee in Appendix 4 would provide
24,000 undergraduate scholarships and 900 graduate fellowships and
would cost about $30,000,000 annually when in full operation. Each
year under this program 6,000 undergraduate scholarships would be made
available to high school graduates, and 300 graduate fellowships would
be offered to college graduates. Approximately the scale of allowances
provided for under the educational program for returning veterans has
been used in estimating the cost of this program.

The plan is, further, that all those who receive such scholarships or
fellowships in science should be enrolled in a National Science
Reserve and be liable to call into the service of the Government, in
connection with scientific or technical work in time of war or other
national emergency declared by Congress or proclaimed by the
President. Thus, in addition to the general benefits to the nation by
reason of the addition to its trained ranks of such a corps of
scientific workers, there would be a definite benefit to the nation in
having these scientific workers on call in national emergencies. The
Government would be well advised to invest the money involved in this
plan even if the benefits to the nation were thought of solely - which
they are not - in terms of national preparedness.

Chapter 5 A PROBLEM OF SCIENTIFIC RECONVERSION

Effects of Mobilization of Science for War

We have been living on our fat. For more than 5 years many of our
scientists have been fighting the war in the laboratories, in the
factories and shops, and at the front. We have been directing the
energies of our scientists to the development of weapons and materials
and methods, on a large number of relatively narrow projects initiated
and controlled by the Office of Scientific Research and Development
and other Government agencies. Like troops, the scientists have been
mobilized, and thrown into action to serve their country in time of
emergency. But they have been diverted to a greater extent than is
generally appreciated from the search for answers to the fundamental
problems - from the search on which human welfare and progress
depends. This is not a complaint - it is a fact. The mobilization of
science behind the lines is aiding the fighting men at the front to
win the war and to shorten it; and it has resulted incidentally in the
accumulation of a vast amount of experience and knowledge of the
application of science to particular problems, much of which can be
put to use when the war is over. Fortunately, this country had the
scientists - and the time - to make this contribution and thus to
advance the date of victory.

Security Restrictions Should Be Lifted Promptly

Much of the information and experience acquired during the war is
confined to the agencies that gathered it. Except to the extent that
military security dictates otherwise, such knowledge should be spread
upon the record for the benefit of the general public.

Thanks to the wise provision of the Secretary of War and the Secretary
of the Navy, most of the results of war-time medical research have
been published. Several hundred articles have appeared in the
professional journals; many are in process of publication. The
material still subject to security classification should be released
as soon as possible.

It is my view that most of the remainder of the classified scientific
material should be released as soon as there is ground for belief that
the enemy will not be able to turn it against us in this war. Most of
the information needed by industry and in education can be released
without disclosing its embodiments in actual military material and
devices. Basically there is no reason to believe that scientists of
other countries will not in time rediscover everything we now know
which is held in secrecy. A broad dissemination of scientific
information upon which further advances can readily be made furnishes
a sounder foundation for our national security than a policy of
restriction which would impede our own progress although imposed in
the hope that possible enemies would not catch up with us.

During the war it has been necessary for selected groups of scientists
to work on specialized problems, with relatively little information as
to what other groups were doing and had done. Working against time,
the Office of Scientific Research and Development has been obliged to
enforce this practice during the war, although it was realized by all
concerned that it was an emergency measure which prevented the
continuous cross-fertilization so essential to fruitful scientific
effort.

Our ability to overcome possible future enemies depends upon
scientific advances which will proceed more rapidly with diffusion of
knowledge than under a policy of continued restriction of knowledge
now in our possession.

Need for Coordination

In planning the release of scientific data and experience collected in
connection with the war, we must not overlook the fact that research
has gone forward under many auspices - the Army, the Navy, the Office
of Scientific Research and Development, the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics, other departments and agencies of the
Government, educational institutions, and many industrial
organizations. There have been numerous cases of independent discovery
of the same truth in different places. To permit the release of
information by one agency and to continue to restrict it elsewhere
would be unfair in its effect and would tend to impair the morale and
efficiency of scientists who have submerged individual interests in
the controls and restrictions of war.

A part of the information now classified which should be released is
possessed jointly by our allies and ourselves. Plans for release of
such information should be coordinated with our allies to minimize
danger of international friction which would result from sporadic
uncontrolled release.

A Board to Control Release

The agency responsible for recommending the release of information
from military classification should be an Army, Navy, civilian body,
well grounded in science and technology. It should be competent to
advise the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy. It should,
moreover, have sufficient recognition to secure prompt and practical
decisions.

To satisfy these considerations I recommend the establishment of a
Board, made up equally of scientists and military men, whose function
would be to pass upon the declassification and to control the release
for publication of scientific information which is now classified.

Publication Should Be Encouraged

The release of information from security regulations is but one phase
of the problem. The other is to provide for preparation of the
material and its publication in a form and at a price which will
facilitate dissemination and use. In the case of the Office of
Scientific Research and Development, arrangements have been made for
the preparation of manuscripts, while the staffs under our control are
still assembled and in possession of the records, as soon as the
pressure for production of results for this war has begun to relax.

We should get this scientific material to scientists everywhere with
great promptness, and at as low a price as is consistent with suitable
format. We should also get it to the men studying overseas so that
they will know what has happened in their absence.

It is recommended that measures which will encourage and facilitate
the preparation and publication of reports be adopted forthwith by all
agencies, governmental and private, possessing scientific information
released from security control.

Chapter 6 THE MEANS TO THE END

New Responsibilities for Government

One lesson is clear from the reports of the several committees
attached as appendices. The Federal Government should accept new
responsibilities for promoting the creation of new scientific
knowledge and the development of scientific talent in our youth.

The extent and nature of these new responsibilities are set forth in
detail in the reports of the committees whose recommendations in this
regard are fully endorsed.

In discharging these responsibilities Federal funds should be made
available. We have given much thought to the question of how plans for
the use of Federal funds may be arranged so that such funds will not
drive out of the picture funds from local governments, foundations,
and private donors. We believe that our proposals will minimize that
effect, but we do not think that it can be completely avoided. We
submit, however, that the nation's need for more and better scientific
research is such that the risk must be accepted.

It is also clear that the effective discharge of these
responsibilities will require the full attention of some over-all
agency devoted to that purpose. There should be a focal point within
the Government for a concerted program of assisting scientific
research conducted outside of Government. Such an agency should
furnish the funds needed to support basic research in the colleges and
universities, should coordinate where possible research programs on
matters of utmost importance to the national welfare, should formulate
a national policy for the Government toward science, should sponsor
the interchange of scientific information among scientists and
laboratories both in this country and abroad, and should ensure that
the incentives to research in industry and the universities are
maintained. All of the committees advising on these matters agree on
the necessity for such an agency.

The Mechanism

There are within Government departments many groups whose interests
are primarily those of scientific research. Notable examples are found
within the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Interior, and the
Federal Security Agency. These groups are concerned with science as
collateral and peripheral to the major problems of those Departments.
These groups should remain where they are, and continue to perform
their present functions, including the support of agricultural
research by grants to the Land Grant Colleges and Experiment Stations,
since their largest contribution lies in applying fundamental
knowledge to the special problems of the Departments within which they
are established.

By the same token these groups cannot be made the repository of the
new and large responsibilities in science which belong to the
Government and which the Government should accept. The recommendations
in this report which relate to research within the Government, to the
release of scientific information, to clarification of the tax laws,
and to the recovery and development of our scientific talent now in
uniform can be implemented by action within the existing structure of
the Government. But nowhere in the Governmental structure receiving
its funds from Congress is there an agency adapted to supplementing
the support of basic research in the universities, both in medicine
and the natural sciences; adapted to supporting research on new
weapons for both Services; or adapted to administering a program of
science scholarships and fellowships.

A new agency should be established, therefore, by the Congress for the
purpose. Such an agency, moreover, should be an independent agency
devoted to the support of scientific research and advanced scientific
education alone. Industry learned many years ago that basic research
cannot often be fruitfully conducted as an adjunct to or a subdivision
of an operating agency or department. Operating agencies have
immediate operating goals and are under constant pressure to produce
in a tangible way, for that is the test of their value. None of these
conditions is favorable to basic research. research is the exploration
of the unknown and is necessarily speculative. It is inhibited by
conventional approaches, traditions, and standards. It cannot be
satisfactorily conducted in an atmosphere where it is gauged and
tested by operating or production standards. Basic scientific research
should not, therefore, be placed under an operating agency whose
paramount concern is anything other than research. Research will
always suffer when put in competition with operations. The decision
that there should be a new and independent agency was reached by each
of the committees advising in these matters.

I am convinced that these new functions should be centered in one
agency. Science is fundamentally a unitary thing. The number of
independent agencies should be kept to a minimum. Much medical
progress, for example, will come from fundamental advances in
chemistry. Separation of the sciences in tight compartments, as would
occur if more than one agency were involved, would retard and not
advance scientific knowledge as a whole.

Five Fundamentals

There are certain basic principles which must underlie the program of
Government support for scientific research and education if such
support is to be effective and if it is to avoid impairing the very
things we seek to foster. These principles are as follows:

(1) Whatever the extent of support may be, there must be stability of
funds over a period of years so that long-range programs may be
undertaken. (2) The agency to administer such funds should be composed
of citizens selected only on the basis of their interest in and
capacity to promote the work of the agency. They should be persons of
broad interest in and understanding of the peculiarities of scientific
research and education. (3) The agency should promote research through
contracts or grants to organizations outside the Federal Government.
It should not operate any laboratories of its own. (4) Support of
basic research in the public and private colleges, universities, and
research institutes must leave the internal control of policy,
personnel, and the method and scope of the research to the
institutions themselves. This is of the utmost importance. (5) While
assuring complete independence and freedom for the nature, scope, and
methodology of research carried on in the institutions receiving
public funds, and while retaining discretion in the allocation of
funds among such institutions, the Foundation proposed herein must be
responsible to the President and the Congress. Only through such
responsibility can we maintain the proper relationship between science
and other aspects of a democratic system. The usual controls of
audits, reports, budgeting, and the like, should, of course, apply to
the administrative and fiscal operations of the Foundation, subject,
however, to such adjustments in procedure as are necessary to meet the
special requirements of research.

Basic research is a long-term process - it ceases to be basic if
immediate results are expected on short-term support. Methods should
therefore be found which will permit the agency to make commitments of
funds from current appropriations for programs of five years duration
or longer. Continuity and stability of the program and its support may
be expected (a) from the growing realization by the Congress of the
benefits to the public from scientific research, and (b) from the
conviction which will grow among those who conduct research under the
auspices of the agency that good quality work will be followed by
continuing support.

Military Research

As stated earlier in this report, military preparedness requires a
permanent, independent, civilian-controlled organization, having close
liaison with the Army and Navy, but with funds direct from Congress
and the clear power to initiate military research which will
supplement and strengthen that carried on directly under the control
of the Army and Navy. As a temporary measure the National Academy of
Sciences has established the Research Board for National Security at
the request of the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy.
This is highly desirable in order that there may be no interruption in
the relations between scientists and military men after the emergency
wartime Office of Scientific Research and Development goes out of
existence. The Congress is now considering legislation to provide
funds for this Board by direct appropriation.

I believe that, as a permanent measure, it would be appropriate to add
to the agency needed to perform the other functions recommended in
this report the responsibilities for civilian-initiated and
civilian-controlled military research. The function of such a civilian
group would be primarily to conduct long-range scientific research on
military problems - leaving to the Services research on the
improvement of existing weapons.

Some research on military problems should be conducted, in time of
peace as well as in war, by civilians independently of the military
establishment. It is the primary responsibility of the Army and Navy
to train the men, make available the weapons, and employ the strategy
that will bring victory in combat. The Armed Services cannot be
expected to be experts in all of the complicated fields which make it
possible for a great nation to fight successfully in total war. There
are certain kinds of research - such as research on the improvement of
existing weapons - which can best be done within the military
establishment. However, the job of long-range research involving
application of the newest scientific discoveries to military needs
should be the responsibility of those civilian scientists in the
universities and in industry who are best trained to discharge it
thoroughly and successfully. It is essential that both kinds of
research go forward and that there be the closest liaison between the
two groups.

Placing the civilian military research function in the proposed agency
would bring it into close relationship with a broad program of basic
research in both the natural sciences and medicine. A balance between
military and other research could thus readily be maintained.

The establishment of the new agency, including a civilian military
research group, should not be delayed by the existence of the Research
Board for National Security, which is a temporary measure. Nor should
the creation of the new agency be delayed by uncertainties in regard
to the postwar organization of our military departments themselves.
Clearly, the new agency, including a civilian military research group
within it, can remain sufficiently flexible to adapt its operations to
whatever may be the final organization of the military departments.

National Research Foundation

It is my judgment that the national interest in scientific research
and scientific education can best be promoted by the creation of a
National Research Foundation.

I. Purposes. - The National Research Foundation should develop and
promote a national policy for scientific research and scientific
education, should support basic research in nonprofit organizations,
should develop scientific talent in American youth by means of
scholarships and fellowships, and should by contract and otherwise
support long-range research on military matters.

II. Members. - 1. Responsibility to the people, through the President
and Congress, should be placed in the hands of, say nine Members, who
should be persons not otherwise connected with the Government and not
representative of any special interest, who should be known as
National Research Foundation Members, selected by the President on the
basis of their interest in and capacity to promote the purposes of the
Foundation.

2. The terms of the Members should be, say, 4 years, and no Member
should be eligible for immediate reappointment provided he has served
a full 4-year term. It should be arranged that the Members first
appointed serve terms of such length that at least two Members are
appointed each succeeding year.

3. The Members should serve without compensation but should be
entitled to their expenses incurred in the performance of their
duties.

4. The Members should elect their own chairman annually.

5. The chief executive officer of the Foundation should be a director
appointed by the Members. Subject to the direction and supervision of
the Foundation Members (acting as a board), the director should
discharge all the fiscal, legal, and administrative functions of the
Foundation. The director should receive a salary that is fully
adequate to attract an outstanding man to the post.

6. There should be an administrative office responsible to the
director to handle in one place the fiscal, legal, personnel, and
other similar administrative functions necessary to the accomplishment
of the purposes of the Foundation.

7. With the exception of the director, the division members, and one
executive officer appointed by the director to administer the affairs
of each division, all employees of the Foundation should be appointed
under Civil Service regulations.

III. Organization. - 1. In order to accomplish the purposes of the
Foundation the Members should establish several professional Divisions
to be responsible to the Members. At the outset these Divisions should
be:

a. Division of Medical Research. - The function of this Division
should be to support medical research.

b. Division of Natural Sciences. - The function of this Division
should be to support research in the physical and natural sciences.

c. Division of National Defense. - It should be the function of this
Division to support long-range scientific research on military
matters.

d. Division of Scientific Personnel and Education. - It should be the
function of this Division to support and to supervise the grant of
scholarships and fellowships in science.

e. Division of Publications and Scientific Collaboration. - This
Division should be charged with encouraging the publication of
scientific knowledge and promoting international exchange of
scientific information.

2. Each Division of the Foundation should be made up of at least five
members, appointed by the Members of the Foundation. In making such
appointments the Members should request and consider recommendations
from the National Academy of Sciences which should be asked to
establish a new National Research Foundation nominating committee in
order to bring together the recommendations of scientists in all
organizations. The chairman of each Division should be appointed by
the Members of the Foundation.

3. The division Members should be appointed for such terms as the
Members of the Foundation may determine, and may be reappointed at the
discretion of the Members. They should receive their expenses and
compensation for their services at a per diem rate of, say, $50 while
engaged on business of the Foundation, but no division member should
receive more than, say, $10,000 compensation per year.

4. Membership of the Division of National Defense should include, in
addition to, say, five civilian members, one representative designated
by the Secretary of War, and one representative of the Secretary of
the Navy, who should serve without additional compensation for this
duty.

----------------------------------------------------------------------
   Proposed Organization of National Research Foundation


  ================================
  | National Research Foundation |
  |------------------------------|
  | Members |
  ================================
   |
   -----------------------
   |  Director  |
   -----------------------
   |
   |---------------------
   |  |
   | ---------------------------
   | |  Staff offices |
   | | General Counsel|
   | | Finance Officer|
   | | Administrative planning |
   | | Personnel|
   | ---------------------------
   |
----------------------------------------------------------------
| |  | |  |
  ------------------ --------------- ------------- ------------- ---------------
-
  |  Division of| |Division of  | |Division of| |Division of| |Division of
|
  |Medical Research| |Scientific| |Natural | | National  | |Publications &
|
  |----------------| |Personnel and| | Sciences  | | Defense| |Scientific
|
  |Members| |Education | |-----------| |-----------| |Collaboration
|
  ------------------ |-------------| | Members| |  Members  | |--------------
|
   |  |  Members | ------------- ------------- |  Members
|
   |  --------------- ||  ---------------
-
   |  ||||
------------------- --------------- ------------- ------------- ---------------
-
|Executive officer| |Exec. officer| |Exec. off. | |Exec. off. | |Exec. officer
|
------------------- --------------- ------------- ------------- ---------------
-

=============================================================================

IV. Functions. - 1. The Members of the Foundation should have the
following functions, powers, and duties:

a. To formulate over-all policies of the Foundation.

b. To establish and maintain such offices within the United States,
its territories and possessions, as they may deem necessary.

c. To meet and function at any place within the United States, its
territories and possessions.

d. To obtain and utilize the services of other Government agencies to
the extent that such agencies are prepared to render such services.

e. To adopt, promulgate, amend, and rescind rules and regulations to
carry out the provisions of the legislation and the policies and
practices of the Foundation.

f. To review and balance the financial requirements of the several
Divisions and to propose to the President the annual estimate for the
funds required by each Division. Appropriations should be earmarked
for the purposes of specific Divisions, but the Foundation should be
left discretion with respect to the expenditure of each Division's
funds.

g. To make contracts or grants for the conduct of research by
negotiation without advertising for bids.

And with the advice of the National Research Foundation Divisions
concerned -

h. To create such advisory and cooperating agencies and councils,
state, regional, or national, as in their judgment will aid in
effectuating the purposes of the legislation, and to pay the expenses
thereof.

i. To enter into contracts with or make grants to educational and
nonprofit research institutions for support of scientific research.

j. To initiate and finance in appropriate agencies, institutions, or
organizations, research on problems related to the national defense.

k. To initiate and finance in appropriate organizations research
projects for which existing facilities are unavailable or inadequate.

l. To establish scholarships and fellowships in the natural sciences
including biology and medicine.

m. To promote the dissemination of scientific and technical
information and to further its international exchange.

n. To support international cooperation in science by providing
financial aid for international meetings, associations of scientific
societies, and scientific research programs organized on an
international basis.

o. To devise and promote the use of methods of improving the
transition between research and its practical application in industry.

2. The Divisions should be responsible to the Members of the
Foundation for -

a. Formulation of programs and policy within the scope of the
particular Divisions.

b. Recommendations regarding the allocation of research programs among
research organizations.

c. Recommendation of appropriate arrangements between the Foundation
and the organizations selected to carry on the program.

d. Recommendation of arrangements with State and local authorities in
regard to cooperation in a program of science scholarships and
fellowships.

e. Periodic review of the quality of research being conducted under
the auspices of the particular Division and revision of the program of
support of research.

f. Presentation of budgets of financial needs for the work of the
Division.

g. Maintaining liaison with other scientific research agencies, both
governmental and private, concerned with the work of the Division.

V. Patent Policy. - The success of the National Research Foundation in
promoting scientific research in this country will depend to a very
large degree upon the cooperation of organizations outside the
Government. In making contracts with or grants to such organizations
the Foundation should protect the public interest adequately and at
the same time leave the cooperating organization with adequate freedom
and incentive to conduct scientific research. The public interest will
normally be adequately protected if the Government receives a
royalty-free license for governmental purposes under any patents
resulting from work financed by the Foundation. There should be no
obligation on the research institution to patent discoveries made as a
result of support from the Foundation. There should certainly not be
any absolute requirement that all rights in such discoveries be
assigned to the Government, but it should be left to the discretion of
the director and the interested Division whether in special cases the
public interest requires such an assignment. Legislation on this point
should leave to the Members of the Foundation discretion as to its
patent policy in order that patent arrangements may be adjusted as
circumstances and the public interest require.

VI. Special Authority. - In order to insure that men of great
competence and experience may be designated as Members of the
Foundation and as members of the several professional Divisions, the
legislation creating the Foundation should contain specific
authorization so that the Members of the Foundation and the Members of
the Divisions may also engage in private and gainful employment,
notwithstanding the provisions of any other laws: provided, however,
that no compensation for such employment is received in any form from
any profit-making institution which receives funds under contract, or
otherwise, from the Division or Divisions of the Foundation with which
the individual is concerned. In normal times, in view of the
restrictive statutory prohibitions against dual interests on the part
of Government officials, it would be virtually impossible to persuade
persons having private employment of any kind to serve the Government
in an official capacity. In order, however, to secure the part-time
services of the most competent men as Members of the Foundation and
the Divisions, these stringent prohibitions should be relaxed to the
extent indicated.

Since research is unlike the procurement of standardized items, which
are susceptible to competitive bidding on fixed specifications, the
legislation creating the National Research Foundation should free the
Foundation from the obligation to place its contracts for research
through advertising for bids. This is particularly so since the
measure of a successful research contract lies not in the dollar cost
but in the qualitative and quantitative contribution which is made to
our knowledge. The extent of this contribution in turn depends on the
creative spirit and talent which can be brought to bear within a
research laboratory. The National Research Foundation must, therefore,
be free to place its research contracts or grants not only with those
institutions which have a demonstrated research capacity but also with
other institutions whose latent talent or creative atmosphere affords
promise of research success.

As in the case of the research sponsored during the war by the Office
of Scientific Research and Development, the research sponsored by the
National Research Foundation should be conducted, in general, on an
actual cost basis without profit to the institution receiving the
research contract or grant.

There is one other matter which requires special mention. Since
research does not fall within the category of normal commercial or
procurement operations which are easily covered by the usual
contractual relations, it is essential that certain statutory and
regulatory fiscal requirements be waived in the case of research
contractors. For example, the National Research Foundation should be
authorized by legislation to make, modify, or amend contracts of all
kinds with or without legal consideration, and without performance
bonds. Similarly, advance payments should be allowed in the discretion
of the Director of the Foundation when required. Finally, the normal
vouchering requirements of the General Accounting Office with respect
to detailed itemization or substantiation of vouchers submitted under
cost contracts should be relaxed for research contractors. Adherence
to the usual procedures in the case of research contracts will impair
the efficiency of research operations and will needlessly increase the
cost of the work of the Government. Without the broad authority along
these lines which was contained in the First War Powers Act and its
implementing Executive Orders, together with the special relaxation of
vouchering requirements granted by the General Accounting Office, the
Office of Scientific Research and Development would have been gravely
handicapped in carrying on research on military matters during this
war. Colleges and universities in which research will be conducted
principally under contract with the Foundation are, unlike commercial
institutions, not equipped to handle the detailed vouchering
procedures and auditing technicalities which are required of the usual
Government contractors.

VII. Budget. - Studies by the several committees provide a partial
basis for making an estimate of the order of magnitude of the funds
required to implement the proposed program. Clearly the program should
grow in a healthy manner from modest beginnings. The following very
rough estimates are given for the first year of operation after the
Foundation is organized and operating, and for the fifth year of
operation when it is expected that the operations would have reached a
fairly stable level:

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Activity| Millions of dollars
   ----------------------
   | First year | 5th yr
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Division of Medical Research|5.0|20.0
  Division of Natural Sciences|  10.0|50.0
  Division of National Defense|  10.0|20.0
  Division of Scientific Personnel and Education|7.0|29.0
  Division of Publications & Scientific Collaboration | .5| 1.0
  Administration  |1.0| 2.5
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Action by Congress

The National Research Foundation herein proposed meets the urgent need
of the days ahead. The form of the organization suggested is the
result of considerable deliberation. The form is important. The very
successful pattern of organization of the National Advisory Committee
for Aeronautics, which has promoted basic research on problems of
flight during the past thirty years, has been carefully considered in
proposing the method of appointment of Members of the Foundation and
in defining their responsibilities. Moreover, whatever program is
established it is vitally important that it satisfy the Five
Fundamentals.

The Foundation here proposed has been described only in outline. The
excellent reports of the committees which studied these matters are
attached as appendices. They will be of aid in furnishing detailed
suggestions.

Legislation is necessary. It should be drafted with great care. Early
action is imperative, however, if this nation is to meet the challenge
of science and fully utilize the potentialities of science. On the
wisdom with which we bring science to bear against the problems of the
coming years depends in large measure our future as a nation.

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