<HTML xmlns:o = "urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"><HEAD>
<META charset=UTF-8 http-equiv=Content-Type content="text/html; charset=UTF-8">
<META content="MSHTML 6.00.2900.2180" name=GENERATOR></HEAD>
<BODY style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: Arial; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ffffff">
<DIV>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Back in 2001, I wrote a manifesto for a new discipline, “Omnology,” a field for those with a gaggle of curiosities and with the potential to use their multiple intellectual and artistic hungers to provide unusual perspectives to the scientific community.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>At least two major figures tried to establish their own forms of omnology in the 19<SUP>th</SUP> Century.<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>One was Herbert Spencer, who devoted his life to the creation of a Grand Synthesis that encompassed all the sciences.<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>The other was William Whewell, who took on every science that his mind and curiosity could comprehend, then demonstrated his “omnicompetence” by showing his own insight into each field AND by exploring the big-picture linkage between the narrowly specializing disciplines.<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>Whewell was called a ``metascientist'' by<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>historian Richard Yeo<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>and<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>“universal scientist” by the author of the piece below, sent to me by David Berreby.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">Would the term “omnologist” have allowed Whewell and Spencer to lay a path for synthesis as a necessary function of science and for the synthesist as a key contributor’s to science’s digestive process?<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>Perhaps.<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>But without a term other than “polymath” to describe what the Spencer and Whewell attempted, others with a broad range of curiosities were left to flounder for the next century and a half.<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>But it’s the synthesists who often see the<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>set of questions…and answers…over the next horizon.<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>Darwin, Freud, Einstein, Mandelbrot, and even Newton were wildly unconventional synthesists, linking elements they found in the nooks and crannies of many obscure…and not so obscure…specialties.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>If omnology can be established as a legitimate discipline, my hope is that kids with promiscuous creativity will be told that their multiple enthusiasms are their gifts, not their liabilities.<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>My hope is that those who have a taste for<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>big-picture syntheses<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>will be added to the community of legitimate scientists, given their own dignity, given their own budgets, given their own made-to-order, cross-disciplinary degree programs and will be recognized for their contributions.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>What follows is the material David Berreby sent on Whewell and a copy of The Omnologist Manifesto.<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>Howard</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 12pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-hyphenate: none; tab-stops: .75in 1.25in 1.75in 2.25in 2.75in 3.25in 3.75in 4.25in 4.75in"><SPAN style="LETTER-SPACING: -0.15pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-hyphenate: none; tab-stops: .75in 1.25in 1.75in 2.25in 2.75in 3.25in 3.75in 4.25in 4.75in; mso-line-height-alt: 12.0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 14pt; FONT-FAMILY: 'Calisto MT'; LETTER-SPACING: -0.15pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt">“Omnology”—</SPAN><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 14pt; FONT-FAMILY: 'Calisto MT'; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt">“an academic base for the promiscuously curious, a discipline that concentrates on seeing the patterns that emerge when one views all the sciences and the arts at once.”</SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-hyphenate: none; tab-stops: .75in 1.25in 1.75in 2.25in 2.75in 3.25in 3.75in 4.25in 4.75in; mso-line-height-alt: 12.0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 14pt; FONT-FAMILY: 'Calisto MT'; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"></SPAN> </P><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 14pt; FONT-FAMILY: 'Calisto MT'; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt">
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt; TEXT-ALIGN: center" align=center><SPAN style="LETTER-SPACING: -0.15pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">The Omnologist Manifesto<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt; TEXT-ALIGN: center" align=center><SPAN style="LETTER-SPACING: -0.15pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoBodyText style="BORDER-RIGHT: medium none; BORDER-TOP: medium none; MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt; BORDER-LEFT: medium none; LINE-HEIGHT: normal; BORDER-BOTTOM: medium none; mso-hyphenate: auto; tab-stops: .5in; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in"><SPAN style="FONT-FAMILY: 'Times New Roman'">We are blessed with a richness of specializations, but cursed with a paucity of panoptic disciplines—categories of knowledge that concentrate on seeing the pattern that emerges when one views all the sciences at once.<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>Hence we need a field dedicated to the panoramic, an academic base for the promiscuously curious, a discipline whose mandate is best summed up in a paraphrase of the poet Andrew Marvel: “Let us roll all our strength and all Our knowledge up into one ball, And tear our visions with rough strife Thorough the iron gates of life.”<o:p></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt">
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt; LINE-HEIGHT: 12pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-hyphenate: none; tab-stops: .75in 1.25in 1.75in 2.25in 2.75in 3.25in 3.75in 4.25in 4.75in"><SPAN style="LETTER-SPACING: -0.15pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"><o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-hyphenate: none; tab-stops: .75in 1.25in 1.75in 2.25in 2.75in 3.25in 3.75in 4.25in 4.75in; mso-line-height-alt: 12.0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"><FONT face=Arial size=3></FONT><FONT face=Arial size=3></FONT> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P></P>
<DIV>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN><o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman">Omnology is a science, but one dedicated to the biggest picture conceivable by the minds of its practitioners.<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>Omnology will use every conceptual tool available—and some not yet invented but inventible—to leapfrog over disciplinary barriers, stitching together the patchwork quilt of science and all the rest that humans can yet know.<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>If one omnologist is able to perceive the relationship between pop songs, ancient Egyptian graffiti, Shirley MacLaine’s mysticism, neurobiology, and the origins of the cosmos, so be it.<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>If another uses mathematics to probe traffic patterns, the behavior of insect colonies, and the manner in which galaxies cluster in swarms, wonderful.<SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN>And if another uses introspection to uncover hidden passions and relate them to research in chemistry, anthropology, psychology, history, and the arts, she, too, has a treasured place on the wild frontiers of scientific truth—the terra incognita in the heartland of omnology.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN><o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman">Let me close with the words of yet another poet, William Blake, on the ultimate goal of omnology:<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN><o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN><o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman">To see a World in a Grain of Sand<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman">And a Heaven in a Wild Flower,<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman">Hold Infinity in the palm of your hand<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman">And Eternity in an hour.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> </SPAN><o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman">Copyright 2001 Howard Bloom<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P></DIV>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><o:p></o:p></SPAN><FONT face="Calisto MT">----------------</FONT> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>William Whewell </FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>1794­-1866 </FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2></FONT></SPAN> </P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2> </FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>------------------------------------------------------------------------</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>William Whewell was born in Lancaster on 24 May 1794 and died in Cambridge on 6 March 1866.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>He was the eldest of four surviving children born to John and Elizabeth Whewell. Whewell was a</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>teenager when his mother died in 1807. After grammar school at Heversham in Westmorland,</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Whewell entered Trinity College, Cambridge and graduated second Wrangler. His father was a</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>carpenter, and Whewell only attended Cambridge thanks to a scholarship for the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>underprivileged. With his father¹s death in 1816, Whewell was without family support. The rest</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>of his career depended solely on his own talents. He became a Fellow at Trinity in 1817, taking</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>his MA in 1819 and eventually becoming Master in 1841, a position Whewell held for twenty-five</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>years. Tragically, Whewell outlived two wives, losing Cordelia Marshall in 1855 and Everina</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Frances Lady Affleck in 1865. Neither marriage produced any children. His reputation is</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>twofold: as a philosopher and a historian of science. His intellectual output was enormous,</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>consisting of over twenty major books and numerous articles on the history and philosophy of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>science.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Whewell is not primarily remembered as a scientific innovator or researcher. As early as the mid</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>1830s he described himself as an observer and philosopher of science, while deprecating his</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>own research efforts. This did not mean that he had contributed nothing. In 1819 he published</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics, which was the first differential calculus text in English</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>consistently to use the more algebraic Continental symbolism. It became the standard</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>undergraduate text at Cambridge, thus supplanting Newton¹s symbolizations at his own</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>university. A Treatise on Dynamics, published in 1823, brought Continental analytic methods into</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>British science. Exhibiting an interest in mineralogy, Whewell did the equivalent of postdoctoral</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>work on crystallography, travelling to Berlin, Freiburg and Vienna in 1825. Between 1826 and</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>1828 he worked with astronomer George Biddell Airy on methods for determining the mean</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>density of the earth. The experiments necessitated taking data at the bottom of a 1,200-foot</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Cornwall mineshaft, and thus rather rigorous fieldwork. Lastly, Whewell produced a survey of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>global tidal patterns, for which he was heavily reliant on reported observations rather than his</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>own work. He created no particular theory of tidal action.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>In his day Whewell held a commanding position in British science. In part, this prominence</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>depended upon his position at Cambridge. When he first accepted a fellowship at Trinity</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>College, it represented a tremendous achievement, the first of a series. After being ordained</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>an Anglican priest in 1825, Whewell accepted the Professorship of Mineralogy, though thanks</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>to political disputes about the election, he could not assume the post until 1828. He became</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Professor of Moral Philosophy in 1838, and three years later was appointed to the mastership</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>of Trinity College. His Elementary Treatise on Mechanics gained him entry into the Royal Society</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>in 1820; his research with Adam Sedgwick and Airy earned him an invitation to the Geological</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Society in 1827. Eventually he served as its President. Whewell aspired to be a universal</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>scientist. An accomplished mathematician, he also studied mineralogy, ocean tides and geology,</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>and reviewed scientific papers and texts from a wide range of fields. While the possibility of a</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>single person possessing a universal scientific knowledge had diminished considerably since the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>latter eighteenth century, the role was still a plausible one in the 1830s. Whewell was one of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>the last figures in British science to attempt such a comprehensive competence.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Though secure in an academic career by the early 1830s, Whewell sought to command an</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>omnicompetent public scientific authority. He concentrated on book review writing, especially</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>between 1831 and 1834. He usually published in conservative journals such as the Tory</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Quarterly Review and the High Church British Critic. These reviews typically diverged from the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>subject at hand, a tactic expected because of the nature of the genre and its target audience:</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>an educated but non-specialist conservative elite. In early 1831 Whewell published a lengthy</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>review article, Science and the English Universities¹, in the British Critic. Ostensibly reviewing</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, Whewell tackled the broader issue of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>the state of English science. A critical article in the Edinburgh Review had accused the English</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>university system of falling behind Continental scientific inquiry. Whewell¹s lengthy defence cited</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>the growth of experimental studies, the increasing number of scientific fields, and the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>importance of balancing pure research with the educational mission. These arguments were</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>taken up as the general defence of the English universities against reform-minded critics. The</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>article thus propelled Whewell into a respected position as a pundit of science and higher</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>education.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Another 1831 review, this time appearing in the Quarterly, established him as an important</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>voice in the philosophy of science. The subject was John Herschel¹s A Preliminary Discourse on</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>the Study of Natural Philosophy ­ a comprehensive, popular survey of the history of scientific</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>progress and the development of scientific method. Though lauding Herschel¹s book, Whewell</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>did not hesitate to challenge the pre-eminent Herschel. First, he differed with him regarding the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>hierarchy of sciences ­ how to classify them by specific methods and how to rank them in</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>importance. Second, he treated Herschel¹s work as somewhat incomplete, and used the review</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>to elaborate his own views and tout his own credentials as a critic and theorist of science.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Herschel¹s work represented one of the first British attempts to survey the state of scientific</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>knowledge and provide a detailed account of the scientific method that had been responsible</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>for the accumulation of such knowledge. In part, Whewell had praised it because he saw</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Herschel fulfilling a serious need in educating the British public about the nature of scientific</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>inquiry, especially crucial due to growing concerns about British science and Oxbridge Falling</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>behind¹ the Continent. But in another way, Whewell wanted to surpass Herschel by portraying</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>himself as what historian Richard Yeo calls a Œmetascientist¹ ­ one whose role is synthesis,</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>commentary and education rather than research (Yeo, Defining Science, pp. 50­52).</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Specifically, Whewell set out to build a comprehensive theory of scientific method based upon</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>his analysis of what Inductive method¹ really was. He also began a legacy which, unlike his</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>inductive theory, lives on today: his creation of new vocabulary for science ­ Nebular</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>hypothesis¹, Œion¹, Œcathode¹, Œanode¹, Œcatastrophist¹, Œuniformitarian¹ and Œscientist¹ are all</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>credited to Whewell. </FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>In addition to reviewing the work of others, Whewell bolstered his Œmetascientist¹ credentials</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>and propounded his theory of induction by authoring three major monographs of science</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>theory. The first of these, a tremendous success reaching a large popular science audience,</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>was his contribution to the Bridgewater Treatises. In 1829 the estate of the late Earl of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Bridgewater had granted £8,000 to the Royal Society to sponsor a grand project of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>synthesizing Christian theology with contemporary science, to show, as the earl had stated in</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>his will, The goodness of God as manifested in the Creation¹. Ultimately, the grant was divided</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>into eight parts, with £1,000 allotted to each author. The results, published between 1833 and</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>1840, became known as the Bridgewater Treatises. Whewell contributed Astronomy and</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>General Physics Considered with Reference to Natural Theology (1833), a classic example of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>the design argument that ran through seven editions and was continuously in print through the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>mid 1860s. Whewell argued that precisely because the universe operated according to regular</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>and identifiable law-like processes, the order and the whole of creation indicated an active and</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>beneficent Designer. Far from eliminating God, the rationality and regularity of the universe</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>demonstrated God¹s great mind and the overall magnificence of creation. While this argument</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>lay at the heart of the treatise, it was not Whewell¹s most important contribution. Critics and</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>supporters alike noticed rather his arguments about the moral and ethical implications of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>deductive versus inductive methods in scientific thought. As will become clear below, Whewell</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>believed that this logical division in scientific method actually entailed competing</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>epistemological and therefore ethical systems. First, however, it is necessary to see what</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Whewell meant by Œtrue¹ inductive method.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Whewell attempted to recast Œinduction¹ as more than the simple enumeration of instances of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>evidences. Believing Francis Bacon a model Œinductivist¹, Whewell thought that Bacon¹s</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>detractors had unfairly maligned him as a mere data collector. Whewell contended this</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>prevailing popular interpretation of Bacon¹s legacy was far too impoverished to account for the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>success of science. Whewell reintroduced the view that induction involved a mental operation</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>linking a number of empirical facts through the addition of a concept that unites them under a</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>general principle. Facts became scientific knowledge when a scientist reinterpreted them under</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>a new conception to demonstrate the True bond of Unity by which the phenomena are held</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>together¹ (Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, 1847, vol. 2, p. 46). Whewell called this</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>process Œcolligation¹ and held that any proper understanding of science must account for the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>introduction of new colligating, the real engines of adducing natural patterns. Whewell¹s famous</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>example was Johannes Kepler¹s discovery of elliptical planetary orbits. Kepler, who was</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>steeped in mathematics and geometry, was able to analyse the known empirical data points of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>the orbit of Mars to infer its elliptical orbit. Afterwards, Kepler generalized this finding to posit</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>elliptical orbits for all the planets. Whewell noted that even though the individual observations</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>of planetary positions were well known to Tycho Brahe, the major advance in understanding</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>came when Kepler added the geometric concept of the ellipse. For Whewell, the choice of the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>colligating idea did not result from guesses but rather from an inference, an informed</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>judgement, only made possible by the pre-existing education of the researcher¹s mind. Thus,</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Whewell¹s account of induction involved not only the collection of empirical data, but also</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>required an explication of the subsequent imposition of colligating concepts.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Whewell understood knowledge as composed of two elements he called Ideas and</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Perceptions¹ (On the Philosophy of Discovery, p. 307). In setting out his version of induction,</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Whewell criticized both the empiricism of John Locke and the idealism of Immanuel Kant, each</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>for being too narrow. He criticized Locke, and subsequently John Stuart Mill, for placing too</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>much emphasis on empirical observation in knowledge gathering without offering a satisfactory</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>account of the active role of the mind. Drawing on German idealism, Whewell contended that the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>fundamental ideas of Resemblance, Space, Cause and Time provided structure to experience.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Whewell agreed with Kant that the fundamental ideas are not given by experience, but rather</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>that they result from the very constitution of our minds. In contrast with Kant, Whewell did not</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>provide an exhaustive list of fundamental ideas and he included among them ideas that allow</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>for the colligation of scientific observations under a general principle. In fact, he thought that</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>new fundamental ideas would emerge from the development of new sciences. In his most</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>striking departure from Kantian idealism, Whewell denied that the fundamental ideas are</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>subjective and claimed that they specify objective features of the world. He contended that</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>once we explicate the fundamental ideas, it is possible to derive from them all necessary</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>truths. Further, he maintained that we must undertake empirical science in order to explicate</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>initially the fundamental ideas. He claimed that science used empirical demonstrations to</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>elucidate fundamental ideas; yet once explicated, the idea would then appear knowable</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>independent of experience. Whewell¹s epistemology, with its accompanying interpretation of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>induction, rejected the traditional distinction between laws of nature and axiomatic knowledge.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>He opted instead for a Œsymbiotic¹ view of knowledge in which empirical investigations aid in the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>explication of fundamental ideas that in turn order experiences and provide a basis for claims</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>about necessary truths. For this reason, Whewell contended that debates about scientific</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>method actually boiled down to debates about epistemology, and these included ethics and</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>moral philosophy.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>In his Bridgewater Treatise Whewell had considered both the strengths and weaknesses of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>natural theology. At issue was whether or not a career in science destroyed the faith of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>scientists. Following a long tradition, Herschel had once argued that exposure to the wonders</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>of nature would elevate the mind to the Creator. Critics responded that this failed to explain</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>why many important men of science in the previous century had not been inspired by religious</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>faith. Whewell, like Herschel, contended that a deep observational knowledge of the universe</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>intensified one¹s sense of the Creator; thus Galileo, Copernicus, Kepler and Newton all evinced</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>an admirable piety intensified by their scientific careers. However, Whewell recognized men of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>science for whom scientific careers seemed to have led them away from, or to have</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>substituted for, faith. Herschel simply denied that there existed any axiomatic relationship</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>between one¹s religiosity and a scientific career. </FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Whewell contended that the most important scientific theorizers had been not observational</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>scientists, but rather what he called Œexperimentalists¹, who were not in his view great</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>discoverers. Separating science into two processes ­ the discovery of laws and the later</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>explanation and practical application of them ­ Whewell argued that discovery emphasized</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>inductive thinking of the sort described in his Kepler example. The scientists he called</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Œexperimentalists¹ concentrated on deductive reasoning: the quest to prove the inductive</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>principle. Whewell distinguished between deduction, which involved inferences from general</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>principles to particular occurrences, and induction, which he described as inferring general</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>principles from particulars. According to Whewell, experimentalists focused their attention on</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>showing how particular phenomena could be accounted for under already known laws and this</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>distanced them from the wonder and awe inherent in discovering order in the universe. The</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>experimentalists took such law as a given for their purposes; thus, they failed to appreciate</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>the wonder of discovering new laws ­ a process Whewell credited with reinforcing the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>scientist¹s appreciation of God¹s role in the universe. Whewell¹s attribution of moral significance</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>to the different forms of reasoning was novel and contentious. Critics did not accept his claim</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>that because the Œdeductivists¹ proceeded from assumed generalities to particulars, their</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>successes might mislead people to value deductive explication over other forms of knowing,</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>such as politics or morals. They rejected both Whewell¹s self-imposed definitions and his</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>explication of the scientific method. </FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Whewell shifted the argument about the proper role of science to concern with the proper</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>character and ethos of scientists, their choices of method, and also proper epistemology. This</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>was significant since these issues remained fundamental to debating the role of science and its</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>validity right through Darwin¹s publication of the Origin of Species. Some of the most frequent</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>criticisms of Darwin¹s work in the years immediately following 1859 were charges of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Unwarranted deduction¹ as exemplified by Adam Sedgwick¹s critiques (Hull, p. 160).</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Additionally, there were aspersions cast upon his character and his work based upon the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>status of his personal faith. Years earlier, Whewell had succeeded in confirming the notion that</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>who said something in science could, for example, be just as important as what the person</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>said. Though not unchallenged, this assumption remained important in British public scientific</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>debate until the 1860s when Darwinians such as Joseph Hooker and T.H. Huxley effectively</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>undermined this sort of attack. After the debates about Darwin, the force of Whewell¹s gambit</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>waned; however, in modern times, it has been revived. The Strong Programme in Sociology of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Scientific Knowledge¹, as exemplified by Barnes (1982) and Shapin (1982), maintains that</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>questions concerning truth cannot be answered in the abstract, but rather must be reframed</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>as questions about ŒWhose truth?¹ and ŒTruth for what purpose(s)?¹</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Late in his career, Whewell devoted himself to the philosophy of science. In this vein he is best</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>known for two monumental works ­History of the Inductive Sciences (1837) and The Philosophy</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>of the Inductive Sciences (1840). Viewed as an extended introduction to the Philosophy, the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>History purported to trace the development of the sciences from ancient Greece to Whewell¹s</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>time. The most innovative part was an attempt to Œschematicize¹ the course of scientific</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>development. Whewell argued that the history of science followed a recognizable pattern with</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>periods of generalization, inductive epochs with preludes and sequels, and stationary periods.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Generalization described periods wherein thinkers began to articulate general scientific laws.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>These moments were the Œgreat moments¹ of intellectual history. Some generalizations were</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>particularly fruitful because of an explosion of Œinductive process¹, meaning a very active period</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>of data gathering, perfecting of method, clear expression of ideas all leading to a great</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>generalization. Stationary periods were those when the inductive process was slowest and</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>science seemed to concentrate on deductive explorations of knowledge, trying to derive</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>implied truths from known science. The point of it all, Whewell argued in his Preface, was to</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>found a philosophy of science drawn from actual historical practice rather than from a theory of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>science. In Whewell¹s day the book filled an important niche, running through three editions</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>over twenty years, as well as American reprints into the 1890s.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Whewell¹s other Œgreat book¹ was The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. The Philosophy had</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>a definite context, as Whewell sought to counter the influence of the work of John Stuart Mill</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>and the utilitarians by securing his own definitions and theories of Œinduction¹ and scientific</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>method, as described earlier. In the Philosophy Whewell made explicit the full implications of his</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>contention that various scientific methods entailed different ethical commitments. As Yeo has</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>pointed out, contemporaries well understood that Whewell was predicating a moral science</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>(Yeo, Defining Science, pp. 236­9). It was aimed at Mill because Whewell rejected utilitarian</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>atheism and moral relativism. By now, Whewell had long argued that Lockean epistemology,</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>citing sense perception as the basis of all knowledge, was a flawed attempt merely to</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>transform morals because it described all knowledge as contingent. On the contrary, Whewell</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>held that morals existed and must be held to exist as the discovery by the mind of innate,</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>pre-existing ideas. Whewell therefore believed that his neo-idealist description of inductivism</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>substantiated this moral philosophy. In the History and the Philosophy Whewell believed he had</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>demonstrated that the actual practice of science validated an anti-empiricist epistemology.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Therefore, according to Whewell, Locke was simply wrong, as were his descendants, including</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Mill and other utilitarians. Even Whewell¹s friends were not convinced; Herschel recorded his</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>dissent in his review of the Philosophy in 1841, though he and most of Whewell¹s critics agreed</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>that scientific method and the philosophy of morals overlapped (Herschel, pp.177­238). For his</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>part, Mill took the Philosophy as something of a godsend, because as he was producing his</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Logic it gave him an explicit and detailed idealist argument against which to aim his own barbs.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Ultimately, Mill¹s view triumphed in his own day; however, both Karl Popper and Thomas Kuhn</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>explicate views of induction that are closer to Whewell¹s than Mill¹s.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>In the mid 1840s, with the anonymous publication of the Vestiges of the Natural History of</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Creation, Whewell entered the public debate about evolution. In his pamphlet, ŒIndications of the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Creator¹, he argued against transmutation. He also explicitly denied that science could even</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>broach the question of life origins because as a one-off, contingent event it could not be</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>subjected to scientific method. He repeated similar objections to transmutation through the</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>1850s and rejected evolution as portrayed in Darwin¹s Origin of Species. He had long before</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>argued that species had a real existence and that Œtransmutation¹ did not occur. Perpetuating</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>his idealist themes, he further concluded that there must exist real qualities and properties to</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>which the words used to describe them could refer, or else language would be in fact</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>ultimately meaningless and real thought impossible. No real knowledge could exist if meaning</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>itself were mutable. Thus biological Œtypes¹ must exist. Beyond these restatements of his</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>idealist biology, he made no other salient contributions regarding the Origin of Species, though</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>he remained intellectually active in moral philosophy right up to his death.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>------------------------------------------------------------------------</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Bibliography </FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics (1819).</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>A Treatise on Dynamics Bound with: An introduction to Dynamics, Containing the Laws of Motion</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>and the First Three Sections of the Principia (1823).</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Astronomy and General Physics Considered with Reference to Natural Theology (Cambridge,</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>1833).</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>History of the Inductive Sciences, 3 vols (1837; 2nd rev. and continued edn, 1847; 3rd edn,</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>with additions, 1857). </FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, Founded upon their History, 2 vols (1840; 2nd edn,</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>1847).</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>The Elements of Morality, Including Polity (1845).</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Lectures on Systematic Morality (1846).</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>ŒIndications of the Creator¹, The Living Age, vol. 9 (11 April 1846), pp. 57­63.</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>On the Philosophy of Discovery: Chapters Historical and Critical (1856).</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>The History of Scientific Ideas, 2 vols (1858).</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Novum Organon Renovatum (1858). </FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>On the Philosophy of Discovery: Chapters Historical and Critical (1860).</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Collected Works of William Whewell, ed. Richard Yeo,16 vols (Bristol, 2001).</FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> <o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P>
<P class=MsoNormal style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><B><SPAN style="LETTER-SPACING: -0.15pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT></FONT></SPAN></B><FONT lang=0 face=Arial size=2 FAMILY="SANSSERIF" PTSIZE="10">----------<BR>Howard Bloom<BR>Author of The Lucifer Principle: A Scientific Expedition Into the Forces of History and Global Brain: The Evolution of Mass Mind From The Big Bang to the 21st Century<BR>Visiting Scholar-Graduate Psychology Department, New York University; Core Faculty Member, The Graduate Institute<BR>www.howardbloom.net<BR>www.bigbangtango.net<BR>Founder: International Paleopsychology Project; founding board member: Epic of Evolution Society; founding board member, The Darwin Project; founder: The Big Bang Tango Media Lab; member: New York Academy of Sciences, American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Psychological Society, Academy of Political Science, Human Behavior and Evolution Society, International Society for Human Ethology; advisory board member: Youthactivism.org; executive editor -- New Paradigm book series.<BR>For information on The International Paleopsychology Project, see: www.paleopsych.org<BR>for two chapters from <BR>The Lucifer Principle: A Scientific Expedition Into the Forces of History, see www.howardbloom.net/lucifer<BR>For information on Global Brain: The Evolution of Mass Mind from the Big Bang to the 21st Century, see www.howardbloom.net<BR></FONT></P></DIV></BODY></HTML>